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Keep Your Card in This Pocket THE ROMANCE OF JSTAMES THE SAMR AUTHOR THE ROMANCE OV WORDS " A "book of etxtrstordituu y interest ; those who do not yet realise how enthralling a sulvjcrt word history is could not do better than .sample its flavour in Mr. Weekley's admirable book/'^^/iT/rtAr'n Third Edition. 6s net, SURNAMES '* A study of the origm and significance of surnamt's, full of fascination for the general reader/'- 7V//i. Second Edition. 6s. tuu AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTION- ARY OF MODERN ENGLISH e, but tlmt he would also get th t."* Mr* J* C, SQCJJRE in TA* wn 410, 4 THE ROMANCE OF NAMES ' BY ERNEST WEEKLEY, M.A. PROFESSOR OF FRENCH AND HEAD OF THE MODERN LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM J SOMETIM SCHOLAR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE THIRD EDITION, REVISED " I conceive, I say, that my; descent from that- groat restorer of learning is more creditable to me as a man of letters than if I had num- bered in my genealogy all the brawling, bullet- headed, iron-fisted old Gothic barons since the days of Crentheminachcryme not one of whom, I suppose, could write his own name.'* (ScoxT, The Antiquary, ch. vi) LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1922 FIRST EDITION . January 1014 SECOND EDITION . . March 1914 THIRD EDITION . * . May HW PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION IN preparing this revised edition I have been able to make use of much information conveyed to me by readers in- terested in the subject. The general arrangement of the book remains unchanged, but a certain number of state- ments have been modified, corrected, or suppressed. The study of our surnames has been mostly left to the amateur philologist, and many origins given by my predecessors as ascertained facts turn out, on investigation, to be unsup- ported by a shred of evidence. I cannot hope that this little book in its new form is free from error, but I feel that it has benefited by the years I have spent in research since its original publication. I would ask readgrs to accept it, not as a comprehensive treatise containing full information on any name that happens to occur in it, but as a general survey of the subject, and an attempt to indicate and exemplify the various ways in which our surnames have come into existence. ERNEST WEEKLEY. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM. April 1922, PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION THE early demand for a new edition of this little book is a gratifying proof of a widespread interest in its sub- ject, rather than a testimony to the value of my small contribution to that subject. Of the imperfections of this contribution no one can be more conscious than myself, but I trust that the most palpable blemishes have been removed in this revised edition. The student of etymology seldom passes a day without coming across some piece of evidence which throws new light on a difficult problem (see p. 161), or invalidates what had before seemed a reasonable conjecture. I have to thank many corre- spondents for sending me information of value, and for indicating points in which conciseness has led to misunder- standing. Some of my correspondents need, however, to be reminded that etymology and genealogy are separate sciences ; so that, while offering every apology to that Mr. Robinson whose name is a corruption of Montmorehcy, I still adhere to my belief that the other Robinsons derive from Robert. ERNEST WEBBXEY* NOTTINGHAM, PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION THE interpretation of personal names has always had an attraction for the learned and others, but the first attempts to classify and explain our English surnames date, so far as my knowledge goes, from 1605. In that year Verstegan published Ms Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, which contains chapters on both font- names and surnames, and about the same time ap- peared Camden's Remains Concerning Britain, in which the same subjects arc treated much more fully. Both of these learned antiquaries make excellent reading, and much curious information may be gleaned from their pages, especially those of Camden, whose position as Clarcncieux Kiug-at-Arms gave him exceptional opportunities for genealogical research, From the philological point of view they are of course untrust- worthy, though less so than most modern writers on the same subject, About the middle of the nineteenth century, the period of Archbishop Trench and Canon Taylor, began a kind of boom in works of this kind, and books on sur- names are now numerous. But of all these industrious compilers one only, Bardsley, can be taken seriously. His Dictionary of English Surnames^ published (Oxford Press, 1901) from Ms notes some years after his cleat h, is invaluable to students, It represents the results of PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION vii twenty years* conscientious research among early rolls and registers, the explanations given being usually sup- ported by medieval instances. But it cannot be used uncritically, for the author does not appear to have been either a linguist or a philologist, and, although he usually refrains from etymological conjecture, he occa- sionally ventures with disastrous results. Thus, to take a few instances, he identifies Prust with Priest, but the medieval le prust is quite obviously the Norman form of Old Fr. le proust, the provost. He attempts to connect Pull&n with the archaic Eng. putten, poultry ; but his early examples, le pulein, polayn, etc., are of course Fr. Poidain, i.e. Colt. Under Fallows, explained as " fallow lands/* he quotes three examples of de la faleyse, -i.e. Fr. Palaise, corresponding to our Cliff, Clecve, etc. ; Pochin, explained as the diminutive of some personal name, is the Normarx form of the famous name Poussin, i.e. Chick. Or, coming to native in- stances, le wcnchcl, a medieval prototype of Winkle, is explained as for " periwinkle/" whereas it is a common Middle-English word, existing now in the shortened form wench, and means Child, The obsolete Swordslipper, now only Slipper, which he interprets as a maker of 1 * sword-slips/ J or sheaths, was really a sword-sharpener, from Mid. Eng. slip en, cognate with Old Du. slijpen, to polish, sharpen, and Ger. schleifen. Sometimes a very simple problem is left unexplained, e.g. in the case of the name Tyas t where the medieval instances of le iycis are to a student of Old French clearly le tieis or tiois, i.e. the German, cognate with Ger. deutsch and Ital tcd&sco, These examples are quoted, not in depreciation of a conscientious student to whose work my own com- pilation is greatly indebted, but merely to show that via PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION the etymological study of surnames has scarcely been touched at present, except by writers to whom philo- logy is an unknown science. I have inserted, as a specimen problem (ch. xvi.), a little disquisition on the name Rutter, a cursory perusal of which will convince most readers that it is not much use making shots in this subject. My aim has been to steer a clear course between a too learned and a too superficial treatment, and rather to show how surnames are formed than to adduce in- numerable examples which the reader should be able to solve for himself. I have made no attempt to collect curkms names, but have taken those which occur in the London Directory (1908) or have caught my eye in the newspaper or the streets. To go into proofs would have swelled the book beyond all reasonable propor- tions, but the reader may assume that, in the case of any derivation not expressly stated as a conjecture, the connecting links exist. In the various classes of names, I have intentionally omitted all that is obvious, except in the rather frequent case of the obvious being wrong. The index, which I have tried to make com- plete, is intended to replace to some extent those cross- references which are useful to students but irritating to the general reader. Hundreds of names are sus- ceptible of two, three, or more explanations, and I do not profess to be exhaustive. The subject-matter is divided into a number of rather short chapters, dealing with the various classes and subdivisions into which surnames fall; but the natural association which exists between names has often prevailed over rigid classification. The quota- tions by which obsolete words are illustrated are taken as far as possible from Chaucer, whose writings PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ix date from the very period when our surnames were gradually becoming hereditary. I have also quoted extensively from the Promptorium Parvulorum, our earliest English-Latin Dictionary (1440). In ch. vii, on Anglo-Saxon names, I have ob- tained some help from a paper by the late Professor Skeat (Transactions of the Philological Society, 1907-10, pp. 57-85) and from the materials contained in Searle's valuable Onomasticon Anglo-Saxomcum (Cain- bridge, 1897). Among several works which I have con- sulted on French and German family names, the most useful have been Heintze's Deutsche Familiennamen, 3rd ed. (Halle a. S., 1908) and Kremers' Beitr&ge zur Erforschung der franzdsischen Familiennamen (Bonn, 1910 ). The comparative method which I have adopted, especially in explaining nicknames (ch. xxi), will be found, I think, to clear up a good many dark points. Of books on names published in this country, only Bardsley's Dictionary has been, of any considerable assistance, though I have gleaned some scraps of infor- mation here and there from other compilations. My real sources have been the lists of medieval names found in Domesday Book, the Pipe Rolls, the Hundred Rolls, and ia the numerous historical records published by the Government and by various antiquarian societies. ERNEST WEEKXEY. NOTTINGHAM, Sefrt&riber 1913* CONTENTS CHAPTER I. OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL I II, A MEDIEVAL ROLL 13 III. SPELLING AND SOUND 27 IV. BROWN, JONES AND ROBINSON. . . 43 V, THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES * 49 VI. TOM, DICK AND HARRY 56 VII. GODERIC AND GODIVA 68 VIII. PALADINS AND HEROES 78 IX, THB BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR . 84 X. METRONYMICS . 9 XL LOCAL SURNAMES 96 XII. SPOT NAMES ,. I02 XI IL THE HAUNTS OF MAN - I2 * XIV, NORMAN BLOOD , * . * J 37 xli CONTENTS CHAPTER FAGft XV. OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES . . . 143 XVI. A SPECIMEN PROBLEM . 158 XVII. THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS . . . x6z XVIII. TRADES AND CRAFTS . l68 XIX. HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS . . . 177 XX, OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC . # . 183 XXI. OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL . . t 189 XXII. ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES . . , 208 XXIII, BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES . . . ^17 INDEX ....... 231 THE following dictionaries ate quoted without further refer- ence: Promptorium Paroulorum (1440), ed. Mayhew (E.E.T.S.^ 1908), PALSGRAVE, L'Bsclarcissement d& la langue ffancoyse (1530), ed, Gdnin (Paris, 1852). COOPER, Thesaurus Lingum Romana et Britannic (London, COTGRAVE, A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues (London, 1611). The Middle English quotations, except where otherwise stated, are from Chaucor, the references being to the Globe edition* OF CHAPTER I OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL " The French and we termed them Surnames , not because they are the names of the Sire, or the father, but because they are super- added to Christian names." (CAMDEN, Remains concerning Britain.) THE study of the origin oi family names is at the same time quite simple and very difficult. Its sim- plicity consists in the fact that surnames can only come into existence in certain well-understood ways, Its difficulty is due to the extraordinary perversions which names undergo in common speech, to the ortho- graphic uncertainty of our ancestors, to the frequent coalescence of two or more names of quite different origin, and to the multitudinous forms which one single name can assume, such forms being due to local pronunciation, accidents of spelling, date of assumption, and many minor causes. It must always be remembered that the majority of our surnames come from the various dialects of Middle English, i.e. of a language very different from our own in spelling a i 2 OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL and sound, full of words that are now obsolete, and of others which have completely changed their form and meaning. If we take any medieval roll of names, we see al- most at a glance that four such Individuals as John filius Simon William de la Moor Richard le S-piccr Robert le Long exhaust the possibilities of English name-making i.e. that every surname must be (I) personal, from a sire or ancestor, (ii) local, from place of residence, 1 (iii) occupatlve, from trade or office, (Iv) a nickname, from bodily attributes, character, etc. This can easily be Illustrated from any list of names taken at random. The Rugby team chosen to represent the East Midlands against Kent (January 22, 1913) consisted of the following fifteen names: Hancock; Mobbs, Poulton, Hudson, Cook; W at$o$, Earl ; Bull, Muddiman, Collins, Tebtitt, Lacey, H^ Qsborne, Manton. Some of these are simple, but others require a little knowledge for their explanation. Them^re seven personal names, and the first of these, Hancock, Is rather a problem, This Is usually explained as from Flemish Hanke, Johnny, while the origin of the suffix -cock has never been very clearly accounted for (see p. 65). With Hancock we may compare HanMn* 1 This is by far the largest class, counting by names, oot indi- viduals, and many names for which I give another explanation Ixav also a local origin. Tims, when I say that Ely is Old Fr Eli, le. Elias, I assume that the reader will know without being told that it has an alternative explanation from Ely in Cambridge- shire, PERSONAL NAMES 3 But, while the Flemish derivation is possible for these two names, it will not explain Hanson, which sometimes becomes Hansom (p. 36), According to Camden, there is evidence that Han was also used as a rimed form of Ran, short for Ranolf and Randolf (cf. Hob from Robert, Hick from Richard), very popular names in the north during the surname period. In Hankin and Hancock this Han would naturally coalesce with the Flemish Hanke. This would also explain the names Hand for Rand, and Hands, Hance for Rands, Ranee, Mobbs is the same as Mabbs (cf. Moggy for Maggy), and Mabbs Is the genitive of Mab, i.e. Mabel, for Amabel. We have the diminutive in Mapfiin and the patronymic in Mapleson. 1 Hudson is the son of Hud, a very common medieval name, which seems to represent Anglo-Saxon Hudda (p. 75), the vigorous survival of which Into the surname period is a mystery. Watson is the son of Wat, i.e. Walter, from the Old N.E. Fr. Wauticr (Gautier), regularly pronounced and written Water at one time "My name is Waller Whitmore. 1 Tow now ! Why start'st thou ? What I doth death affright ? Suffolk. Thy name affrights me, in whose sound is death. A cunning man did calculate my birth, And told nao that by water I should die." (2 Henry VI, iv. lu) Hence the name Waters, which has not usually any connection with water ; while Waterman, though some- limes occupativo, is also formed from Walter, like llwhnan from Hick (see p. 64). Collins is from Colin, a French diminutive of Col, i.e. NIcol or Nicolas. * MVip^and M*ppte> generally tree names (p. 119), are in some cases lor Mabel MaflMtorp* is from MaMethorpe (Line,), thorp of Madalbert (Msethclbeorlit). 4 OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL Tebbitt Is a diminutive of Theobald, a favourite medieval name which had the shortened forms Teb, Tib, Tub, whence a number of derivatives. But names In Teb~ and Tib- may also come from Isabel (p. 94). Osborne Is the Anglo-Saxon name Osbeora. Of course, each of these personal names has a meaning, e.g. Amabel, ultimately Latin, means lovable, and Walter, a Germanic name, means " rule army" (Modern Ger. w alien and Heer), but the discussion of such meanings lies outside our subject. It is, in fact, sometimes difficult to distinguish between the personal name and the nickname. Thus Pagan, whence Payn, with its diminutives Panncll, Pennell, etc., Gold, Good, German, whence Jermyn, Jarnian, and many other apparent nicknames, occur as personal names In the earliest records. Their etymological origin Is in any case the same as if they were nicknames. To return to our football team, Poultow, Lawy, Hall, and Manton are local. There are several villages in Cheshire and Lancashire named PouUon, i.e. the town or homestead (p. 123) by the pool. Lacey occurs in Domesday Book as de Lad, from some small spot in Normandy, probably the hamlet of Lassy (Calvados), Hall is due to residence near the great house of the neighbourhood. If Hall's ancestor's name had chanced to be put down in Anglo-French as de la sale, he might now be known as Sale, or even as SauL Manton Is the name of places in Lincolnshire and Northampton- shire, so that this player, at any rate, has an ancestral qualification for the East Midlands. The only true occupative name in the list is Cook, for Eatl is a nickname. Cook was perhaps the last occu- pative title to hold Its OWE against the Inherited name, Justice Shallow, welcoming Sir John Falstaff, says NICKNAMES 5 " Some pigeons, Davy ; a couple of short-legged hens, a joint of mutton, and any pretty little tiny kickshaws. Tell William Cook" (2 Henry IF, v. i.). Aud students of the Ingoldsby Legends will remember that "Ellen Bean ruled his cuisine. -He called her Nelly Cook." -(Nell Cook, 1. 32.) There ate probably a goodly number of housewives of the present day who would be at a loss if suddenly asked for f ' cook's ' ' name in full . It may be noted that lequeux means exactly the same, and Is of identical origin, archaic Fr. le queux, Lat. coquus, while Kew is sometimes for Anglo-Fr. le keu, where keu is the ac- cusative of queux (see p. 9, n.). The nicknames are Earl, Bull, and Muddiman. Nicknames such as Earl may have been acquired in Various ways (see p. 144). Bull and Muddiman are singularly appropriate for Rugby scrummagers, though the first may be from an inn or shop sign, rather than from physique or character. It is equivalent to Thoreau, Old Fr. toreau (taureau). Muddiman is for Moodymaw, where moody has its older meaning of valiant ; cf. its German cognate mutig. The weather on the day in question gave a certain fitness both to the original meaning and the later form. The above names are, with the exception of Hancock, Hudson, and Muddiman, easy to solve ; but it must not be concluded that every list is as simple, or that the obvious is always right, The first page of Bards- ley's Dictionary of Surnames might well serve as a danger-signal to cocksure writers on this subject. The names Abbey and Abbott would naturally seem to go back to an ancestor who lived in or near an abbey, and to another who had been nicknamed the 6 OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL abbot But A bbey is more of ten from the Anglo-French entry le alibi, the abbot, and Abbott may be a diminu- tive of Ab, standing for Abel, or Abraham, the first of which was a common medieval font-name, Francis Holyoak describes himself on the title-page of his Latin Dictionary (1612) as Franciscus dc Sacra QucrcM, but his name also represents the holly oak, or holm oak (see p. 118). On the other hand, llolliuian always occurs in early rolls as hali or holt man, i.c. holy man. It may be stated here, once for all, that etymolo- gies of names which are based on medieval latiniza- tions, family mottoes, etc., are always to be regarded with suspicion, as they involve the reversing of chrono- logy, or the explanation of a name by a pun which has been made from it. We find Lilburne latinized as dc insula fontis, as though it were the impossible hybrid de I' isle bum, and Beaufoy sometimes as dc bella fide, whereas foy is the Old French for beech, from Lat. fagus. Napier of Merchiston had the motto n'a pier, "has no equal/* and described himself on title-pages as the Nonpareil, but Ms ancestor was a servant who looked after the Bapery, With Holyoak' s rendering of his own name we may compare Parkinson's " latiniza* tion" of his name in his famous book on gardening(i629) l which bears the title Patadisi in Sole Paradisus Tcrrcs- if is, i.e. the Earthly Paradise of "Park in Sun." Many noble names have an anecdotic " explanation/* 1 learnt at school that Percy came from "pierce-cyc," in allusion to a treacherous exploit at Alnwick. The Lesleys claim descent from a hero who overthrew a Hungarian champion " Between the h$$ fee &nd the malt He slew the knight and left Mm tlierd,*^ (Queniin Durward^ clu MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES 7 Similarly, the great name of Courtenay, Courtney, of French local origin, is derived in an Old French epic from court ncz, short nose, an epithet conferred on the famous Guillaume d' Orange, who, when the sword of a Saracen giant removed this important feature, exclaimed undauntedly "Mais que mon n6s ai tin poi acorcie, Bien sai mes nons en sera alongi^." 1 (Li Coronemenz Loo'is, I. 1159.) I read lately in some newspaper that the original Lock- hart took the " heart " of the Bruce to the Holy Land in a " locked " casket. Practically every famous Scottish name has a yarn connected with it, the gem perhaps being that which accounts for Guthrie. A Scottish king, it is said, landed weary and hungry as the sole survivor of a shipwreck. He approached a woman who was gutting fish, and asked her to prepare one for him. The kindly fishwife at once replied, " 111 gut three/ 1 Whereupon the king, dropping into rime with a readiness worthy of Mr. Wegg, said "Then gut three, Your name shall be," and conferred a suitable estate on Ms benefactress. After all, truth is stranger than fiction. There is quite enough legitimate cause for wonderment in the fact that Tyas is letter for letter the same name as Douch, or that Strangeways, from a district in Man- chester which, lying between the Irwell and the Irk, was formerly subject to floods, is etymologically strong-wash. The Joannes Acutus whose tomb stands in Florence is the great free-lance captain Sir John * " Though I have my nose a little shortened, 1 know well that my name will bo thereby lengthened/ 1 8 OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL Hawkwood, tf omitting the h in Latin as frivolous, and the k and w as unusual " (Vcrstegan, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, ch. ix), which makes him almost as unrecognizable as that Peter Gower, the supposed founder of freemasonry, who turned out to be Pythag- oras. Many names are susceptible of two, three, or more explanations* This is especially true of some of our commonest monosyllabic surnames. Bell may be from Anglo-Fr. le bel (beau), or from a shop sign, or from residence near the church or town bell. It may even have been applied to the man who pulled the bell. Finally, the ancestor may have been a lady called Isabel, a supposition which does not necessarily imply illegitimacy (see p. 92), Ball is sometimes the shortened form of the once favourite Baldwin. It is also from a shop sign, and perhaps most frequently of all is for bald. The latter word is pro- perly balled, i.e., marked with a ball, 1 or white streak, a word of Celtic origin ; cf. " piebald/' i.e., balled like a (mag)pie, and the " bald-faced stag/ 1 From the same word we get the augmentative Battard, used, according to Wyclif, by the little boys who unwisely called to an irritable prophet "Stey up laUard" (2 Kings ii 23), The name may also be personal, Anglo-Sax, Beal- heard. Rowc may be local, from residence in a row (cf. Fr. Delarue), or it may be an accidental spelling 1 Halliwell notes that the nickname Ball is the name of a hers in Chaucer and in Ttisser, of a sheep in the Promptonum Parvulorum, and of a dog in the Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VIII. In each case the name alludes to a white mark, or what horsy people call a star. A cow thus marked is called in Scotland a boasand cow, and from the same word comes the obsolete bawson, badger. ALTERNATIVE ORIGINS 9 of the nickname Roe, which also survives in the Mid. English form Ray (p. 223). But Row was also the shortened form of Rowland, or Roland. Cobb is an Anglo-Saxon name, as in the local Cobham, but it is also from the first syllable of Cobbold (for either Cuth- beald or Godbeald) and the second of Jacob. From Jacob come the diminutives Cobbiu and Coppin. Or, to take some less common names, House not only represents the medieval de la house, but also stands for Howes, which, in its turn, may be the plural of how, a hill (p. 106), or the genitive of How, one of the numer- ous medieval forms of Hugh (p. 59). jffw^maybefor Hine, a farm servant (see p. 35), or for Mid. Eng. hende, courteous (cf . for the 'vowel change Ind, p. 1-26), and is perhaps sometimes also an animal nickname (see p, 223). Rouse is generally Fr. roux, i.e. the red, but it may also be the nomina- tive l form of Rou, i.e. of Rolf, or Rollo, the sea-king who conquered Normandy. Was Holman the holy man, the man who lived near a holm, i.e. holly (p. 118), on a holm, or river island (p. 117), or in a hole, or hollow ? All these origins have equal claims. As a rule, when an apparent nickname is also sus- ceptible of another solution, baptismal, local, or occupa- tive, tlxe alternative explanation is to be preferred, as the popular tendency has always been towards twist- ing names into significant words. Thus, to take an example of each class, Diamond is sometimes for an old name Daymond (Dsegmund), Portwine is a corruption of Poitevin, the man from Poitou (p. 99), and Tipler, i Old French, had a declension in two cases. The nominative, which has now almost disappeared, was usually distinguished by -5. This survives in a few words, e,g, fil$ t and proper names such as Ch&rbs, Juh$> Oto, io OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL which now suggests alcoholic excess, was, as late as the seventeenth century, the regular name for an ale- house keeper. In a very large number of cases there Is a con- siderable choice for the modern bearer of a name. Any Boon or Bone who wishes to assert that " Of Hereford's high blood ho came, A race renown' d for knightly fame " (Lord of the Isles, vi. 15), can claim descent from de Bohun. While, if he holds that kind hearts are more than coronets, he has an alternative descent from some medieval lo Ion. This adjective, used as a personal name, gave also Bunn and Bunce; for the spelling of the latter name cf. Dance for Dans, and Pearce for Piers, the nominative of Pierre (see p. 9, n.) t which also survives in Pears and Pearson. Swain may go back to the father of Canute, or to some hoary-headed swain who, possibly, tended the swine. Not all the Seymours are 51 Maws. Some of them were once Sctnners, i.e. tailors. Gosling Is rather trivial, but It represents the romantic Jocclyn, In Normandy Gosselin, a diminutive of the once very popular personal name Josse. Goss is usually for goose, but any Goss, or Gossctt, unwilling to trace his family back to John Goose, " my lord of Yorkes fole, 1 " may likewise choose the French Josse or Gosse. Goss may also be a dialect pronunciation of gorse, the older form of which has given the name Gorst, Coward, though humble, cow-herd, Is no more timid than Craven, the name of a district In the West Riding of Yorkshire, Mr. Chucks, when in good society, " seldom bowed, i Privy Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York (1:50:2), NAMES DESIRABLE OR UNDESIRABLE n sir, to anything under three syllables" (Peter Simple, cli. xvli). But the length of a name is not necessarily an index of a noble meaning. As will be seen (pp. 74, 5 ), a great number of our monosyllabic names belong to the oldest stratum of all. The boatswain's own name, from Norman-Fr. chouque, a tree-stump, is identical with the rather aristocratic Zouch or Such, from the usual French form souche. Stubbs, which has the same meaning, may be compared with Cur son y l Curzon, FT. courson, a stump, a derivative of court, short. Pomeroy has a lordly ring, but is the Old French for Applegctrth or Appleyard (p. 142), and Camoys means flat-nosed, Fr, camws "This wcnclie thikke and wel y-growen was, Witli kamuse nose, and cyen greye as glas.' 1 (A, 3973.) Kingslcy, speaking of the name assumed by John Briggs, says " Vavasour was a very pretty name, and one -of those which is [MC] supposed by novelists and young ladies to be aristocratic ; why so is a puzzle ; as its plain meaning is a tenant farmer and nothing more or less " (Two Yean Ago, ch, XL). The word is said to represent a Vulgar Lat, vassus vctssorum, vassal of vassals. On the other hand, many a homely name has a complimentary meaning. Mr. Wegg did not like the, name Boffin, but its oldest form is bon-fin, good and fine. In 1273 ^ r * Bumble's name was spelt bon-bel, good and beautiful With these we may group Bunker, of which the oldest form is bon-quer (bon cosur), and Bo/ey, which corresponds to the common 1 Cur son Is also a dialect variant of Christian, 12 OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL French name Bonnefoy, good faith; while the much more assertive Beaufoy means simply fine beech (p. 6), With Bunker we may compare Goodhart and Cor- deaux, the oldest form of the latter being the French name C&wdoux. Momerie and Mummery are Identical with Mow'bray, from Monbrai in Normandy. Moly- neu% impresses more than Muttins, of which it Is merely the dim., Fr. moulins, mills. The Yorkshire name Tankard Is identical with Tancred. Stiggins goes back to the Illustrious Anglo-Saxon name Stigand, as Wiggins does to wigand, a champion. C adman repre- sents Caedmon, the name of the poet-monk of Whitby. Seg&r is an imitative form of the Anglo-Sax. Saegaer, of which the normal modern representative is Sayers. Giblett is not a name one would covet, but it stands In the same relationship to Gilbert as Hamlet does to Hamo. A small difference in spelling makes a great difference in the look of a name. The aristocratic Coke is an archaic spelling of Cook, the still more lordly Herries sometimes disguises Harris, while the modern Bmssey is the same as de Bracy in Ivanhoe. The rather grisly Nigktgatt is a variant of Nightingale. The accidental retention of particles and articles Is also effective, c,g Delmar, Delamere, Delapole, impress more than Mean and Pool, and Larpent (Fr. I'arpent), LctnaUrc, and Lestrange more than A cres, Masters, and Strange, There are few names of less heroic sound than Spark and Codlin, yet the former is sometimes a contraction of the picturesque Sparrow-hawk, used as a personal name by the Anglo-Saxons, while the latter can be traced back via the earlier forms Qwodling (still found), Querdling, Querdelyoun to Coeur de Lion, CHAPTER II A MEDIEVAL ROLL 11 Quelque diversity d'herbes qu'il y ait, tout s'enveloppe sous le nonx de salade ; de mesme, sous la consideration des noms, je m'en voys fair icy une galimafree de divers articles." (MONTAIGNE, E$$a4$ t i 46.) JUST as, In studying a new language, the linguist finds it most helpful to take a simple text and hammer out in detail every word and grammatical form it contains, )so the student of name-lore cannot do better than tackle a medieval roll and try to connect every name in it with those of the present day. I give here two lists of names from the Hundred Rolls of 1273. The first contains the names of London and Middlesex jurymen, most of them, especially the Londoners, men of substance and position. The second is a list of cottagers resident in the village of Steeple Claydon in Bucks. Even a cursory perusal of these lists should suffice to dispel all recollection of the nightmare " philo- logy 1 ' which has been so much employed to obscure what is perfectly simple and obvious ; while a very slight knowledge of Latin and French is all that is required to connect these names of men who were dead and buried before the Battle of Crecy with those to be found in any modern directory. The brief indications supplied under each name will be found in a fuller form in the various chapters of the book to which references are given, 13 14 A MEDIEVAL ROLL For simplicity I have given the modern English form of each Christian name and expanded the abbre- viations used by the official compilers. It will be noticed that English, Latin, and Anglo-French are used indifferently, that le is usually, though not always, put before the trade-name or nickname, that dc is put before place-names and at before spots which have no proper name. The names in the right-hand column are only specimens of the, often very numerous, modern equivalents. LONDON JURYMEN Hundred Rolls Modem Form William Dibel. (Theobald). Initial t- and d- alternate (p. 32) according to locality. In Tennyson, for Denison, son of Denis, we have the opposite change. The forms assumed by Theobald are very numerous (p. 4). Besides Dibble we have the shorter Dibb. Other variants are Dyball, Dip pie, Tipple, Tidball, Tudball, and a number of names in Teb- t Tib-, Tub-. The reason for the great popularity of the name is obscure. Baldwin le Boober. Batcher* On the various forms of this name, see p. 149, Robert Hauteyn, The Yorkshire name Auty is probably unconnected. It seems rather to be an altered form of a Scandinavian personal name cognate with Odo. Henry 1 WImpIer. The name has apparently disappeared with the gar- ment* But it is never safe to assert that a surname is quite extinct. A MEDIEVAL ROLL 15 Hundred Rolls Modem Form Stephen le Feron. FearoH, From Old Fr. feron, ferron, smith. In a few cases French has -on as an agential suffix (p. 171). William de Paris, Paris, Parrfe, Parish* The commoner modern form Parish is seldom to be derived from our word parish. This rarely occurs, while the entry de Paris is, on the other hand, very common. Roger le Wyn, Wynne, Anglo-Saxon wine, friend. Also a Celtic nickname, identical with Gwynne (p. Matthew tie Pomtxait. Pomiret. The usual pronunciation of Pontefract, broken bridge, one oi the few English place-names of purely Latin origin (p. 120), The Old French form would befiont- frait, Richard le Paumer. Palmer. A man who had made pilgrimage to the Holy Land (p. 167). The modern spelling is restored, hut the -/- remains mute. It is just possible that this name sometimes means tennis-player, as tennis, Fr. le jeu Ae j>ume> once played with the palm of the hand, is of great antiquity* Walter Poletat. Poulter. A dealer in poults, i.e. fowls. For the lengthened form poulterer , cf, fruiterer tax fruiter, and see p. 155, Reginald Awifater. Goldsmith, The French form wftor* may have given the name Offer. x6 A MEDIEVAL ROLL Hundred Rolls Modern Form Henry Deiibeneye. Daulbeney, Datraey* Fr. d'Aubigny. One of the many cases in which the French preposition has been incorporated in the name. Cf. Danvers, for d'Anvers, Antwerp, and see p, 100. Richard Knotte. Knott. From Scandinavian Cnut, Canute. This name is also local, from knot, a hillock, and has of course become confused (p. 30) with the nickname Nott, with cropped hair (p. 210) " Thou fto#-patcd fool/* (i Henry IF, ii. 4.) Walter le Wyte. White* The large number of Whites is partly to be accounted for by their having absorbed the name Wight (p. 214) from Mid. Eng. wiht, valiant. Adam le Sutel. Suttle. Both Eng. subtle and Fr. subtil are restored spellings, which do not appear in nomenclature (see p, 29). Fulk de Saneto Etoinndo. The older form would be Tednam* Bury St. Kd- mund*s is sometimes referred to as Tednambury. For the mutilation of the word saint in place-names, see P- 34* William 1 Botelar* Butter, More probably a bottle-maker than what we under- stand by a butler, the origin being of course the same, A MEDIEVAL ROLL I5 Hundred Rolls Modern Form Gilbert Lupus. WolL Wolf, and the Scandinavian Ulf , are both common as personal names before the Conquest, but a good many modern bearers of the name are German Jews (see p. 55). Old Fr. lou (loup) is one source of Low. Stephen Juvenis* Young. Sene% is rarely found. The natural tendency was to distinguish the younger man from Ms father. Senior is generally to be explained differently (see p. 145). William Braciator, Brewer* The French form brasseur also survives as Bracher and Brasher, the latter being also confused with Brazier, the worker in brass. John de Cmce, Cross 9 Crouch* A man who lived near some outdoor cross. The form crouch survives in * ' Crutched Friars, ' ' Hence also the name Croucher. Matthew le Candeler. Gandter, Chandler. Initial c- for ch- shows Norrriati or Picard origin (see p. 32). Henry Bernard* Barnard* Bameti The change from -er- to -ar- is regular ; cf . Clark, and see p. 32 . The endings -ard, ~ald"&re generally changed to **ett; cf, Everett for Everard, Barrett for Berald, Garrett for Gerard, Garrard, whence the imitative Garrison for Garretson* 3 i8 A MEDIEVAL ROLL Hundred Rolls Modern Form William de Bosco, Bosh, Busk, "For there is neither busk nor hay (p. 124) In May that It nyl shrouded benc." (Romaunt of the Pose, 54.) The name might also be translated as Wood. The corresponding name of French origin is Boyce or Boyes, Fr. bois (see p. 140). Henry de Sancta Ositha. loosey, Cf. Fulk de Sanctp Edinundo (supra), and cf . Tooley St. for St, Olave St. (see p. 34). Walter ate In tins case the preposition has not coalesced, as in Adeane, at the dean, i.e. hollow, Agate, at gate, etc. (see p. 104), William le Fevere. Wright, The French name survives as Feaver and Fevycr* Ci also the Lat, Pabcr, which is not always a modern German importation (see p. Thomas de Cumbe. Combs, Coombes. A West- country name for a hollow in a hillside (see p. 106). John Staee. Stace* Stacey. Generally for Eustace, but sometimes perhaps for Anastasia, as we find Stacey used as a female (see p. 33). Richard le Teyntoier. Better represents Mid. Bug, diglmUr, with the femin- ine agential suffix (see p. 149), A MEDIEVAL ROLL I9 Hundred Rolls Modern Form Henry le Waieys. Welch. Literally the foreigner, but especially applied "by the English to the Western Celts. Qitekh represents the Welsh pronunciation. With Wallis cl Cornwallis, Mid. Eng. le cornwaleis (see p. 96). John ie Bret. Brett, An inhabitant of Brittany, perhaps resident in that Breton colony in London called Little Britain. Bret is the Old French nominative of Breton (see p. 80, n.i). Thomas le Clerc* Clark. One of our commonest names. We now spell the common noun clerk by etymological reaction, but educated people pronounce the word as it was generally written up to the eighteenth century (see p. 32). Stephen le Hatter, Hatter. The great rarity of this name is a curious problem (see p. 151). The name Capper exists, though it is not very common. Thomas le Batur. Thresher * But, being a Londoner, he was more probably a gold-beater, or perhaps a beater 'of cloth. The name Beater also survives, Alexander de Leycestre. Leicester, Lester. For the simpler spelling, once usual and still adopted by those who chalk the names on the mail- vans at St. Pancras, cf. such names as W or star, Wooster, Glo$ter> etc, (see p. 99), 20 A MEDIEVAL ROLL Hundred Rolls Modern Form Robert le Noreys, . Noras* Old Fr. noreis, the Northerner (see p. 97), or nonce (nourrice), the nurse, foster-mother (see p. 185). Reginald le Blond, Blonnt, Blunt* Fr, blond, fair. We have also the dim. Blun- delL The corresponding English name is Fairfax, from Mid. Eng. fax, hair (see p. 214). Randolf ate Mor. Moor* With the preposition retained (see p. 104) it has given the Latin- looking Amor, Matthew le Pewier. Pepper, For the reduction of pepperer to Pepper ct Armour for armourer, and see p. 155. Godfrey le Fuimager. CheesemaBj, Fimimger* From Old Fr. formage (frontage). The intrusion of the n in Pirminger is regular ; cf . Massiwger, messenger, from Fr. messdger, and see p. 35. Robert Catxrpeneys, Old Fr. champeneis (champenois), of Champagne (see p. 99). fohn iel Pet Peck, Peake, Pike f Pick. A name taken from a hill-top, but sometimes ring to the unrelated Derbyshire Peak. Richard Dygma* A diminutive of Dig, for Dick (see p, 63)* A MEDIEVAL ROLL 21 Hundred Rolls Modem Form Peter le Hoder, A maker of hods or a maker of hoods ? The latter Is more likely. Alan Mutarius. Whittier. Lat. alutarius, a " white-tawer." Similarly, Mid. Eng. stan-heawere, stone-hewer, is contracted to Stanier, now almost swallowed up by Stainer. The simple " tawer " is also one origin of the name Tower. Peter le Ens. Russ, Rush, louse. Fr. roux, of red complexion. Cf. the dim. Russell, Fr. Rousseau (see p. 214). MIDDLESEX JURYMEN Roger da la Hale, HaD Hale* Hales, One of our commonest local surnames. But it has two interpretations, from hall and from heal (p. 116). Walter de la Hegge. Hedge, Hedges. Other names of similar meaning are Hay, Hayes, ig, Haigh, Hawes (see p. 124). John Bex. King, One of our commonest nicknames, the survival of which is easily understood (see p, 144), Stephen de la Novel* Mejson. Newkmse. Cf. also Newbigging, from Mid, Eng. Uggen, to build (see p. 133). Randolf Pokoe. Pocock, Peacock. The simple Poe, Lat, $mo, has the same meaning (see p. 218). 22 A MEDIEVAL ROLL Hundred Rolls Modern Form William cle This is the most usual origin of the name Spring (see p. 90). Robert del Perer. Ferrier. Old Fr. pSrier (poirier), pear-tree. Another origin of Perrier is, through French, from Lat. petraritts, a stone- hewer. Adam fie la Benne* Dene* A Mid. English name for valley (see p. 112). Robertus filitis Gillelmi. Wilson, For other possible names to be derived from a father named William, see p. 63, William filing Radolfi. Rawson. A very common medieval name, Anglo-Sax. R&d- wulf, the origin of our Ralph, Rolf, Rolfc, Raff, and of Fr. Raoul. Some o Cits derivatives, e.g. Rolls, have got mixed with those of Roland. To be distinguished from Randolf or Randall, of which the shorter form is Ran or Rand, whence Ran kin, Rands, Ranee, etc. STEEPLE CLAYDQN COTTAGERS Andrew Colle. Collins* Colley* For Nicolas (see p. 57). William leuman. Newcomb. A man recently settled in the village (see p. 106). Adam ate The separate at survives m A 9 Court &n,d A' Beckett, at the beck head; cl Allan a'DaU (see p. 104), A MEDIEVAL ROLL 23 Hundred Rolls Modern Form Ralph Mydevynter* Midwinter. An old name for Christmas (see p. 89). William ate Hull Hill, Hull, The form hul for hil occurs in Mid. English (see p. 106). Gilbert Sutor. Sutor, Souter* On the poor representation of the shoemaker see p. 151. Walter Maraud. It is easy to understand the disappearance of this name " A rogue, begger, vagabond ; a varlet, rascall, scotmdrell, base knave " (Cotgrave) ; but it may be represented by Marratt, Marroft, unless these are from Mary (p. 93). Nicholas le P.ker* This may be expanded into Parker, a park-keeper, Packer, a wool-packer, or the medieval Porker, a swinc-hcrd, now lost in Parker. John Stegani. Stigand 9 Stiggins. Anglo-Saxon names survived chiefly among the peasantry (see p, 12). Roger Mercator. Marchaat, Chapman. The restored modern spelling merchant has affected the pronunciation of the common noun (see p. 32) The more usual term Chapman is cognate with cheap, Chaffer, Chipping, Copenhagen, Ger, kaufen, to buy, etg. 24 A MEDIEVAL ROLL Htmdred Rolls Modern Form Adam Hoppe, Hobbs* Hobson, Hopkins* An example of the interchange of 6 and p (see p* 35). Hob is usually regarded as one of the rimed forms from Robert (see p, 62), Roger Crom. Gram, Crump, Lit. crooked, cognate with Ger. krumm. The final -p of Crump is excrescent (see p. 35). Stephen Comevaleis. Comwallis* Cornish. A name which would begin in Devonshire (see p. 96). Walter de Ibexnia. Iceland, A much more common name than Scotland, which has been squeezed out by Scott (see p, 96), Matilda ftlia HatiUte* Uawson (for Maud-son), Till, TiUey, Tilett, Tillotson, etc. One of the favourite girl-names during the surname period (seep, 93). Ralph Youler, Fowler* A West-country pronunciation ; cf . Vowle for Powell, Yokes for Poakes (p. 61), Venn for P&nn, etc, John filing ThomoL Thompson^ TompMns^ TdmHni etc One of the largest surname families. It includes Toulmin, a metathesis of Tomlin* In Townson Tonson it coalesces with Tony, Anthony. Henry Boll. la this case evidently a nickname (see p. 5)* A MEDIEVAL ROLL 25 Hundred Rolls Modem Form Roger Gyle, GilL For names In Gil- see p. 59. The form In the roll may, however, represent an uncomplimentary nick- name, " guile. 19 Walter Molendarlus. Miller, Meier* Milner, In Milne, Milner, we have the oldest form, repre- senting Vulgar Lat. molina, mill ; cf. Kilner, from kiln, Lat. culina, kitchen. MittarA (p, 180) is perhaps sometimes the same name with excrescent -d. Thomas Berker. Barker* A man who stripped bark, also a tanner. But as a surname reinforced by the Norman form of Fr. berger, a shepherd (see p. 150), Matthew Hedde. Heai. Sometimes local, at the head, but here a nickname ; cf, Tate, Tait, sometimes from Fr. tUe (see p. 126). Richard Joyet Jowett, Jewetl A diminutive either of Joy or of Julian, Juliana. But it is possible that Joy itself is not the abstract noun, but a shortened form of Julian. Adam Kyg* Ketch* Keach. An obsolete adjective meaning lively (see p, 212). Simon fllins Johaanis IlgellL Johnson, Jones, Jernkgs* etc. The derivatives of John are numerous and not to be distinguished from those of Joan, Jane (see p, 95). 26 A MEDIEVAL ROLL The above lists illustrate all the simpler ways in which surnames could be formed. At the time of compilation they were not hereditary. Thus the last man on the list is Simon Johnson, but his father was John Neilson, or Nelson (see p. 95), and Ms son would be - Simpson, Sims, etc. This would go on until, at a period varying with the locality, the wealth and im- portance of the individual, one name in the line would become accidentally petrified and persist to the present day. The chain could, of course, be broken at any time by the assumption of a name from one of the other three classes (see p. 2), CHAPTER III SPELLING AND SOUND " Do you spell it with a V or a W ? " inquired the judge. " That depends upon the taste and fancy of the speller, my lord/' replied Sam, " I never had occasion to spell it more than once or twice in my life, but I spells it with a V." (Pickwick, ch. xxxiv.) MANY people are particular about the spelling of their names. I am myself, although, as a student of philo- logy, I ought to know better. The greatest of English- men was so careless in the matter as to sign himself Shaks the Mi-setter." The Mid. Eng. "MUzeter, campanarius " (Prompt. Parv,)> was a bell-founder, from a verb related to gey sir, ingot, and Get, ito&m, to pour. Robert le betteg&ter was a freeman of York in 30 SPELLING AND SOUND Wray, a corner (p. 127) , has become hopelessly confused with Ray, a roe, Knott, from Cimt, i.e. Canute, or from dialect knot, a hillock, with Nott, crop-haired. Knowlson is the son of Now ell (see p. 89) or of Noll, i.e. Oliver. Therefore, when Mr. X. asserts that his name has always been spelt in such and such a way, he is talking nonsense. If his great-grandfather's will is accessible, he will probably find two or three variants in that alone. The great Duke of Wellington, as a younger man, signed himself Arthur Wesley " He was colonel of Dad's regiment, the Thirty*third foot, after Dad left tlie army, and then he changed his name from Wesfoy to Wellesley, or else the other way about " (KIPLING, Marhlake Witches) ; and I know two families the members of which disagree as to the orthography of their names. We have a curious affectation in such spellings as ffrettch, ffoulkes, etc., where the ff is merely the method of indi- cating the capital letter in early documents. The telescoping of long names is a familiar phe- nomenon. Well-known examples are Choliuondclcy, Chumley, Mar j oribanks, Marckbanks, Mainwaring, Mannering, Less familiar are Auchinleck, Affleck, Boutevilain, Butlin, Postlcthwaitc, Posnett, Sudclcy^ Sully, Wolstenholme, Woosnam. Ensor is from the local Edensor, Cavendish was regularly Candish for the Eliza- bethans, while Cavenham in Suffolk has given the sur- name Cmiham. Daventry has become Daiidrcc, D entry, and probably the imitative Dainty, while Stenson is for Stevenson, It is this tendency which makes the con- nection between surnames and village names so diffi- cult to establish in many cases, for the artificial name as it occurs in the gazetteer often gives little clue to DIALECTIC VARIANTS 31 the local pronunciation. It is easy to recognize Bickenhall or Bickenhiil in Bicknell and Puttenham in Putnam, but the identity of Wyndham with Wymondham is only clear when we know the local pronunciation of the latter name. Milton and Melton are often telescoped forms of Middleton. Dialectic variants must also be taken into account. Briggs and Rigg represent the Northern forms of Bridges and Ridge, and Philbrick is a disguised Fell- brigg. In Egg we have rather the survival of the Mid. English spelling of Edge. Braid, Lang, Strang, are Northern variants of Broad, Long, Strong. Auld is for Old, while Tamson is for Thompson and Dabls for Dobbs (Robert). We have the same change of vowel in Raper, for Roper. Venner generally means hunter, Fr. v en cur, but sometimes represents the West- country form of Fenner, the fen-dweller; cf. Vidler for fiddler, and Vanner for Fanner, the winnower. We all know the difficulty we have in catching a new and unfamiliar name, and the subterfuges we employ to find out what it really is. In such cases we do not get the help from association and analogy which serves us in dealing with language in general, but find ourselves in the position of a foreigner or child hearing an unfamiliar word for the first time. We realize how many imperceptible shades there are between a short i and a short e, or between a fully voiced and a voice- less k t examples suggested to me by my having lately understood a Mr. Riggs to be a Mr. Rex. We find occurring in surnames examples of those consonantal changes which do not violate the great phonetic law that such changes can only occur regularly within the same group, i.e. that a labial cannot alternate with a palatal, or a dental with 32 SPELLING AND SOUND either. It is thus that we find b alternating with p, Hottts and Hopps (Robert), Bullinger and Pullinger, Fr. boulanger ; g with k, Cutlack and Goodlafoe (Anglo- Sax. Guthlac), Diggs and Dix (Richard), Gipps and Kipps (Gilbert), Catlin and Galling (Catherine) ; / with ch, Jribb or Jupp and Chubb (Job) ; d with tf, Proud andPfo^ (see p. 213), Dyson and Tyson (Dionisia), and also with th, Carrodus and Carruthers (a hamlet in Dumfries). The alternation of c and ch or g and / in names of French origin is dialectic, the c and g representing the Norman-Picard pronunciation, e.g. Campion for Champion, Gosling for Joslin. In some cases we have shown a definite preference for one form, e.g. Chancellor and Chappett, but Carpenter and Camp. In English names c is northern, cA southern, e.g. Carlton, Charlton, Kirk t Church. There are also a few very common vowel changes. The sound er usually became ar, as ia Barclay (Berkeley), Clark, Darby, Garrard (Gerard), /arrold (Gerald), Harbord (Herbert), Jarvis (Gervase), Mar- chant, Sargent, etc., while Lamed, our great-grand- fathers' pronunciation of "learned," corresponds to Fr. Littri. Thus Parkins is the same name as Perkins (Peter), and these also giveP^nb and Perks, the former of which is usually not connected with Park. To Peter, or rather to Fr. Pierre, belong also Parr, Parry and Perry, though Parry is generally Welsh (see p. 66). The dims. Pawott, PerroU, etc*, were sometimes nicknames, the etymology being the same, for our word parrot is from Fr. pierrot. To the freedom with which this sound is spelt, e.g. in Herd, Heard, Hird, Hurd, we also owePwWss for Perkins ; cf. app f or ance. The letter 1 seems also to exercise a demoralizing influence on the adjacent vowel Juliana APHESIS 33 Gillian, and from this, or from the masculine form Julian, we get Jalland, Jolland, and the shortened Gell, Gill (see p, 59), and Jull. Gallon, which Bardsley groups with these, is more often a French name, from the Old German Walo, or a corruption of the still commoner French name Galland, likewise of Germanic origin. We find also such irregular vowel changes as Flinders for Flanders, and conversely Packard for Picard. Pottinger (see p. 35) sometimes becomes Pettinger as Portugal gives PettingalL The general tendency is towards that thinning of the vowel that we get in mister for master and Miss Miggs's mim for ma'am. Littimer for Lattimer is an example of this. But in Royle for the local Ryle we find the same broadening which has given boil, a swelling, for earlier bile. Among phonetic changes which occur with more or less regularity are those called aphesis, epenthesis, epithesis, assimilation, dissimilation, and metathesis, convenient terms which are less learned than they appear. Aphesis is the loss of the unaccented first syllable, as in ' 'baccy and "later. It occurs almost regularly in words of French origin, e.g. squire and esquire, prentice and apprentice. When such double forms exist, the surname invariably assumes the popular form, e.g. Prentice, Squire. Other examples are Banner, i.e. debonair, Jenner, Jenoure, for Mid. Eng. engenour, engineer, Cator, C hay tor, Old Fr. acatour (acheteur) } a buyer " A gentil xnaunciple was ther of a temple, Of which achatours mighte take exemple" (A. 567), Spencer, dispenser, a spender, Stacey for Eustace, Vick and Vech for Levick, i.e. Vev&que, the bishop, Pottinger for the obsolete potigar, an apothecary, etc. 34 SPELLING AND SOUND The Institution now known as the " orspittle 11 was called by our unlettered forefathers the "spital/ 1 hence the names Spittle and Spittlehouse. A well- known amateur goal-keeper has the appropriate name Fender, for defender. Many names beginning with n are due to aphesis, e.g. Nash for atten as"h t N alder, Nelms, Nock, alien oak, Nokes, Nye, atten ey t at the island, Nangle, atten angle, Nind or Nend, atten ind or end. With these we may compare Twells, at wells, and the numerous cases in which the first part of a personal name is dropped, e.g. Toltey, Bartholomew, Munn, Edmund, Pott, Philpot, dim. of Philip (see p. 87), and the less common Facey, from Boniface, and Loney, from Apollonia, the latter of which has also given Applin. When a name compounded with Saint begins with a vowel, we get such forms as Tedwan, St. Edmund, Tobin, St. Aubyn, Toosey, St. Qsith, Toowcr, St. Omcr, TooUy, St. Olave ; cf. Tooley St. for St. Olave St. and tawdry from St. Audrey. When the saint's name begins with a consonant, we get, instead of aphcsis, a telescoped pronunciation, e.g. Sdinger, St. Leger, Seymour, St. Maur, Sinclair, St Clair, Sewwk, St. Mark, Scmple, St, Paul, Simper, St Pierre, Sidney, probably for St* Denis, with which we may compare the educated pronunciation of St. John, These names are all of local origin, from chapelries in Normandy or England. Epeathesis is the insertion of a sound which facilitates pronunciation, such as that of b in Fr. chamhre f from Lat. camera. The intrusive sound may be a vowel or a consonant, as in the names Henery, Hmdry, perver- sions of Henry. 1 To Hendry we owe the northern 1 On tike usual late of tliis Eame in English, see p. 38* EPITHESIS AND ASSIMILATION 35 Henderson, which has often coalesced with Anderson, from Andrew. These are contracted into Henson and Anson, the latter also from Ann and Agnes (see p. 88). Intrusion of a vowel is seen in Greenawny, Hathaway, heath way, Treadaway, trade (i.e. trodden) way, etc., also in Horniman, Alabone, Alban, Minister, ininster, etc. But epenthesis of a consonant is more common, especially 6 or p after m, and d after n. Examples are Gamble for the Anglo-Saxon name Gamel, Hamblin for Hamlin, a double diminutive of Hamo, Simpson, Thompson, etc., and Grindrod, green royd (see p. in). There is also the special case of n before g in such names as Pirminger (see p. 148), Massinger (p. 185), Pottinger (p. 176), etc. Epithesis, or the addition of a final consonant, is common in uneducated speech, e.g. scholard, gownd, garding, etc. I say " uneducated/' but many such forms have been adapted by the language, e.g. sound, Fr. son, and we have the name Kitching for kitchen. The usual additions are -d, -t, or ~g after n, e.g. Sim- monds, Simon, Hammond, Hammant, Fr. Hamon, Hind, a farm labourer, of which the older form is Hine (p, 164), Collings for Collins, Jennings, Fr. Jeannin, dim. of Jean, Aveling from the female name Avelina or Evelyn. Neild is for Neil, Nigel. We have epithetic -& in Plumb, the man who lived by the plum-tree and epithetic -p in Crump (p. 24). Assimilation is the tendency of a sound to imitate its neighbour. Thus the d of Hud (p. 3) sometimes be- comes t in contact with the sharp s, hence Hutson ; Tomkins tends to become Tonkins, whence Tonks, If the m and k are not separated by the epenthetic p, Tompkins, In Hopps and Hopkins we have the 6 of Hob assimilated to the sharp s and k, while in Hobbs 3 6 SPELLING AND SOUND we pronounce a final -z. It Is perhaps under the in- fluence of the initial labial that Milson, son of Miles or Michael, sometimes becomes Milsom, and Branson, son of Brand, appears as Bransom, The same group of names is affected by dissimilation, i.e. the instinct to avoid the recurrence of the same sound. Thus Ranson, son of Ranolf or Randolf /becomes Ransom 1 by dissimilation of one n, and Hanson, son of Han (see p. 3) , becomes Hansom, In Sansom we have Samson assimilated to Sanson and then dissimilated. Dissimilation especially affects the sounds I, n, r. Bullivant is found earlier as bon en f aunt (Goodchild), just as a braggart Burgundian was called by Tudor dramatists a burgullian* Bellinger is for B wringer, an Old French name of Teutonic origin. Those people called Salisbury who do not hail from SaJesbury in Lancashire must have had an ancestor tie Sares-bury, for such was the earlier name of Salisbury (Sarum), A number of occupative names have lost the last syllable by dissimilation, e.g. Pepper for pepperer, Armour for armourer. For further examples see P. 155- It may be noted here that, apart from dissimila- tion, the sounds Z, n, r, have a general tendency to become confused, e.g. Philliworc is for Finamour (Dearlwe), which also appears as Pinnemore Fenimore, the latter also to be explained from fen and moor. Catlin is from Catherine. Balestier, a cross-bow man, gives Baiwistcr, and Hamnei * So also Fr. ran^on gives Eag. ransom. The Preach Ramon is probably aphetic for Lauranpon. a *' Wlxen was Bobadil ker your captain ? that rogue, that foist, that fencing buf$utlwn " (Joason, Evwy Man in Humour t i METATHESIS 37 Hamlet both occur as the name of one of Shakespeare's sons. Janico or Jenico, Fr. Janlcot may be the origin of Jellicoe. We also get the change of r to I in Hal, for Harry, whence Hattett, Hawkins (Halkins), and the Cornish Hockin, Mai or Mol for Mary, whence Mattes on , Mollison, etc., and Pell for Pere- , grine. This confusion is common in infantile speech, e.g. I have heard a small child express great satis- faction at the presence on the table of " blackbelly dam/* Metathesis, or the transposition of sound, chiefly affects I and r, especially the latter. Our word cress is from Mid. Eng. k&rs, which appears in Kar slake, Toulmin is for Tomlin, a double dim., -d-in, of Tom, Grundy is for Gundry, from Anglo-Sax. Gundred, and Joe Gargcry descended from a Gregory. Burnett is for Brunei, dim. of Fr. brun, brown, and Thrupp is for Thorp, a village (p. 122), Strickland was formerly Stirkland, Cripps is the same as Crisp, from Mid. Eng. crisp, curly. Prentis Jankin had " Crispe here, shynynge as gold so fyn " P. 304); and of Fame we are told that " Her heer was oundie (wavy) and crips." (House of Fame, ill 296.) Both names may also be short for Crispin, the etymo- logy being the same in any case. Apps is sometimes for asp, the tree now called by the adjectival name aspen (cl linden). We find Thomas atte apse In the reign of Edward III, The letters /, **, r also tend to disappear from no other cause than rapid or careless pronunciation. 3 8 SPELLING AND SOUND Hence we get Home for Holme (p. 117), Ferris for Ferrers, a French local name, Batt for Bartholomew, Gatty for Gertrude, Dallison for d'Aleng on. The loss of -r- after a vowel Is also exemplified by Foster for Forster, Pannett and Pennell for Parnett (sometimes), Gath for G$f//j (p, 124), and Mash iox Marsh. To the loss of n before s we owe such names as Pattison, Pater son, etc., son of Paton, the dim, of Patrick, and RoUson for Robinson, and also a whole group of names like fenks and Jinks for Jenkins (John), Wilkes for Wilkins, Gilkes, Danks, Perks, Hawkes, Jukes forjudkins (p. 58), etc. Here 1 should also include Biggs, which is not always connected with Bigg, for we seldom find adjectival nicknames with ~s. It seems to represent Biggins, from obsolete biggin, a building (p. 133), The French nasal n often disappeared before r, Thus dcnr&Q, lit. a pennyworth, appears in Anglo- French as darree. Similarly Henry became Harry, except in Scotland, and the English Kings of that name were always called Harry by their subjects. It is to this pronunciation that we owe the popularity of Harris and Harrison, and the frequency of Welsh Parry, ap Harry, as compared with Penry. A com- promise between Henry and Harry is seen in Hanrott, from the French dim. Henriot. The initial A-, which we regard with such veneration, is treated quite arbitrarily in surnames. We find a well-known medieval poet called indifferently Qcclevc and Hoccleve. Harnett is the same as Arneti, for Arnold, Ewens and are both from Bwan, and Heaven is an imitative form of Emn. In Hoskins, from the medieval Osekin, a dim. of some Anglo- Saxon name such as Oswald (p. 69), the aspirate lias definitely prevailed The Devonshire name BABY PHONETICS 39 is for Exeter, Arbuckle Is a corruption of Harbottle, in Northumberland. The Old French name Ancel appears as both Ansell and Hans ell, and Earnshaw exists side by side with Hearnshaw (p. no). The loss of h is especially common when it is the initial letter of a suffix, e.g. Barnum for Barnham, Haslam (hazel), Blenkinsop for Blenkin's hope (see hope, p. 108), Newall for Newhall, Windle for Wind Hill, Tickell for Tick Hill, in Yorkshire, etc. But Bar- num and Haslam may also represent the Anglo-Saxon dative plural of the words barn and hasel. A man who minded sheep was once called a Shepard, or Sheppard, as he still is, though we spell it shepherd. The letter w disappears in the same way ; thus Green* ish is for Greenwich, Homdge for Horwich, As- pinall for Aspinwall, Millar 'd for Millward, the mill- keeper, Boxall for Boxwell, Caudle for Cauldwell (cold) ; and the Anglo-Saxon names in -win are often confused with those in -ing, e.g. Gooding, Goodwin ; Golding, Goldwin ; Gunning, Gunwin, etc. In this way Harding has prevailed over the once equally common Hardwin. Finally, we have to consider what may be called baby phonetics, the sound-changes which seem rather to transgress general phonetic laws. Young children habitually confuse dentals and palatals, thus a child may be heard to say that he has " dot a told." This tendency is, however, not confined to children. My own name, which is a very uncommon one, is a stum- bling-block to most people, and when I give it in a shop the scribe has generally got as far as Wheat- before he can be stopped. We find both A still and A shell for the medieval Asketil, and Thurtle alternating with Thurkle, originally Thurketil (p. 74, ). Berten- 40 SPELLING AND SOUND shaw is found for Birkenshaw, birch wood, Bartley, sometimes from Bartholomew, is more often for Berke- ley, and both Lord Bacon and Horace Walpole wrote Twitnam for Twickenham. Jcffcock, dim. of Geoffrey, becomes Jeffcott, while Glascock is for the local Glascott. Here the palatal takes the place of the dental, as in Brangwin for Anglo-Sax, Brandwine. Middlcnias is a dialect form of Michaelmas (see p. 89). We have the same change in tiddlcbat for stickleback, a word which exemplifies another point in baby phonetics, viz. the loss of initial $-, as in the classic instance tummy. To this loss of s- we owe Pick for Spick (p. 219), Pink for Spink, a dialect word for the chaffinch, and, I think, Tout for Stout. The name Staccy is found as Tacey in old Notts registers. On the other hand, an inorganic $- is sometimes prefixed, as in Sturgess for the older Turgis. For the loss of $~ we may compare Shakespeare's pawnaccti (i Henry IF. 1 3), and for its addition the adjective spruce, from Pruce, i.e. Prussia. We also find the infantile confusion between th and /, e.g. in Selfe, which appears to represent a personal name Seleth, probably from Anglo-Sax, $#/, bliss. Perhaps also in Fripp for Thripp, a variant of Thrupp, for Thorp, Bickerstctffe is the name of a place in Lan- cashire, of which the older form appears in Hickcrstcth, and the local name Throgmorton is spelt by Camdcn Frogmorton, just as Pepys invariably writes Quccnhive for Queenhythc. Such are some of the commoner phenomena to be noticed in connection with the spelling and sound of our names. The student must always bear in mind that ou surnames date from a period when nearly the whole population was uneducated, Their modern INFLUENCE OF SPELLING 41 forms depend on all sorts oi circumstances, such as local dialect, time of adoption, successive fashions in pronunciation and the taste and fancy of the speller. They form part of our language, that is, of a living and ever-changing organism. Some of us are old enough to remember the confusion be- tween initial v and w which prompted the judge's question to Mr. Weller. The vulgar % for a, as in " tike the kike' 9 has been evolved within compara- tively recent times, as well as the loss of final -g, " shootin and hunting in sporting circles. In the word warmint " What were you brought up to be ?" " A warmint, dear boy " (Great Expectations, ch. xL), we have three phonetic phenomena, all of which have influenced the form and sound of modern surnames, e.g. in Winter, sometimes for Vinter, i.e. vintner, Clark fox Clerk, and Bryant for Bryan; and similar changes have been in progress all through the history of our language. In conclusion it may be remarked that the personal and accidental element, which has so much to 'do with the development of surnames, releases this branch of philology to some extent from the iron rule of the phonetician. Of this the preceding pages give examples. The name, not being subject as other words are to a normalizing influence, is easily affected by the tradi- tional or accidental spelling. Otherwise Fry would be pronounced Free. The o is short in Robin and long in Probyn, and yet the names are the same (p. 62). Sloper and Smoker mean a maker of slops and smocks re- spectively, and Swale is an archaic spelling of Small, the modern vowel being in each case lengthened by the 42 SPELLING AND SOUND retention of an archaic spelling. The late Professor Skeat rejects Bardsley's identification of Waring with Old FT. Garin or Warin, because the original vowel and the suffix are both different. But Mainwaring, which is undoubtedly from mesnil-Warin (p. 142), shows Bardsley to be right. CHAPTER IV BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON " Talbots and Stanleys, St. Maurs and such-like folk, have led armies and made laws time out of mind ; but those noble families would be somewhat astonished if the accounts ever came to be fairly taken to find how small their work for England has been by the side of that of the Browns." (Tom Brown's Schooldays, ch. i.) Brown, Jones, and Robinson have usurped in popular speech positions properly belonging to Smith, Jones and Williams. But the high position of Jones and Williams is due to the Welsh, who, replacing a string of Aps by a simple genitive at a comparatively recent date, have given undue prominence to a few very common names ; cf. Dames, Evans, etc. If we con- sider only purely English names, the triumvirate would be Smith, Taylor, and Brown. Thus, of our three com- monest names, the first two are occupative and the third is a nickname. French has no regular equivalent, though Dupont and Durand are sometimes used in this way u Si Chateaubriand avait eu nom Durand ou Dupont, qui salt si son G&nie du Ckristianisme n'efit point pass6 pour un@ capucinade? ' ' (F. Brunetidre.) The Germans speak of Mutter, Meyer and Schulze, all rural names, and it is perhaps characteristic that two of them are official. Meyer is an early loan from Lat major, and appears to have originally meant 43 44 BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON something like overseer. Later on it acquired the meaning of farmer, in its proper sense of one who farms, i.e. manages on a profit-sharing system, the property of another. It is etyinologically the same as our Mayor, Hair, etc, Schulze, a village magistrate, is cognate with Ger. Schuld, debt, and our verb shall, Taking the different classes of surnames separately, the six commonest occupative names are Smith, Taylor, Clark, Wright, Walker, Turner. If we exclude Clark, as being more often a nickname for the man who could read and write, the sixth will be Cooper, sometimes spelt Cow'pcr. The commanding position of Smith is due to the fact that it was applied to all workers in every kind of metal. The modern Smiths no doubt include descendants of medieval blacksmiths, white- smiths, bladcsmiths, locksmiths, and many others, but the compounds are not common as surnames. We Find, however, Shoosmith, Shearsmith, and Nasmyth, the last being more probably for earlier Knysmith, i.e. knife-smith, than for nail-smith, which was supplanted by Naytor. Grossmith I guess to be an accommodated form of the Ger. Grobschmied, blacksmith, lit, rough smith, and Goldsmith is very often a Jewish name for Ger. Goldschmid. Wright, obsolete perhaps as a trade name, has given many compounds, including Arkwright, a maker of bins, or arks as they were once called, Tellwright, a tile maker, and many others which need no interpretation. The high position of Taylor is curious, for there were other names for the such as S earner, Shapsier, Parwenter (p. 170), neither TaiUew nor Letailleur are particularly com- mon in French. The explanation is that this has absorbed the medieval Teler Teller t weaver, ultimately belonging to Lat tefa, a web; cl -the OCQJPATIVB NAMES 45 very common Fr. Tettier and Letdlier. In some cases also the Mid. Eng. teygheler, Tyler, has been swallowed up. Walker, i.e, trampler, meant a cloth fuller, but another origin has helped to swell the numbers of the clan " Walkers are such as are otherwise called foresters. They are foresters assigned by the King, who are walkers within a certain space of ground assigned to their care " (Cowers Interpreter). Cooler, a derivative of Lat. cupa or cuppa, a vessel, is cognate with the famous French name Cuvier, which has given our Cover, though this may also be for coverer, i.e. tiler (see p. 155). Of occupative names which have also an official meaning, the three commonest are Ward, Bailey, and Marshall. Ward, originally abstract, is the same word as Fr. gar de. Bailey, Old Fr. bailif (bailli), ranges irom a Scottish magistrate to a man in possession. It is related to bail and to bailey, a ward in a fortress, as in Old Bailey. Bayliss may come from the Old French nominative bailis (p. 9, n,) f or may be formed like Parsons, etc. (p. 147). Marshall (p. 183) may stand for a great commander or a shoeing-stnith, still called farrier-marshal in the army. The first syllable is cognate with mar e and the second means servant. Constable, Lat. comes stabuli, stableman, has a similar history. The commonest local names naturally include none taken from particular places. The three commonest are Hall, Wood and Green, from residence by the great house, the wood, and the village green. Cf . the French names Lasatte, Dubois, Dupri, Hall is sometimes for Hale (p. 21), and its Old French translation is one source of Sale. Next to these come Hill, Moore, and Shaw (see p. no) ; but Lee would probably come 46 BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON among the first if all its variants were taken into account (p, 28). Of baptismal names used unaltered as surnames the six commonest are Thomas, Lewis, Martin, f/zmes, Morris, Morgan. Here again the Welsh element is strong, and four of these names, ending in -s, belong also to the next group, i.e. the class of surnames formed from the genitive of baptismal names. The frequent occurrence of Lewis is partly due to its being adopted as a kind of translation of the Welsh Llewellyn, but the name is often a disguised Jewish Levi, and has nearly absorbed the local Lewes. Next to the above cor&t Allen, Bennett, Mitchell, all of French introduction. Mitchell may have been reinforced by Mickle, the northern for Bigg. It is curious that these particu- larly common names, Martin, Allen, Bennett (Benedict), Mitchell (Michael), have formed comparatively few de- rivatives and are generally f6und in their unaltered form. Three of them arc from famous saints' names, while Allen, a Breton name which came in with the Conquest, has probably absorbed to some extent the Anglo-Saxon name A Iwin (p. 72). Martin is in some cases an animal nickname, the marten. Among the genitives Jones, Williams, and Dam(e)s lead easily, followed by Evans, Roberts, and Hughes, all Welsh in the main. Among the twelve commonest names of this class those that are not preponderantly Welsh are Roberts, Edwards, Harris, Phillips, and Rogers. Another Welsh patronymic, Price (p. 66), is among the fifty commonest English names. The classification of names in -sew raises the difficult question as to whether Jack represents Fr, Jacques, or whether it comes from Jankin, Jenkin, dim, of 1 See E. B, Nicholson, The of DISTRIBUTION OF NAMES 47 Taking Johnson and Jackson as separate names, we get the order Johns-on, Robinson, Wilson, Thompson, Jackson, Harrison. The variants of Thompson might put it a place or two higher. Names in -kins (see p. 48), though very numerous in some regions, are not so common as those in the above classes. It would be hard to say which English font-name has given the largest number of family names. In Chapter V. will be found some idea of the bewildering and multi- tudinous forms they assume. It has been calculated, I need hardly say by a German professor, that the possible number of derivatives from one given name is 6,000, but fortunately most of the seeds are abor- tive. Of nicknames Brown, Clark, and White are by far the commonest. Then comes King, followed by the two adjectival nicknames Sharp and Young. The growth of towns and facility of communication are now bringing about such a general movement that most regions would accept Brown, Jones and Robinson as fairly typical names. But this was not always so. Brown is still much commoner in the north than in the south, and at one time the northern Johnson and Robinson contrasted with the southern Jones and Roberts, the latter being of comparatively modern origin in Wales (p. 43 ). Even now, if we take the farmer class, our nomenclature is largely regional, 1 and the direc- tories even of our great manufacturing towns represent to a great extent the medieval population of the rural district around them. The names Daft and Turney> well known in Nottingham, appear in the county in the Hundred Rolls, Cheetham, the name of a place now absorbed in Manchester, is as a surname ten times 1 See Guppy, Homes of Family Names* 48 BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON more numerous there than in London, and the same Is true of many characteristic north-country names, such as the Barraclough, Mwgatroyd, and Sugden of Charlotte Bronte's Shirley, The transference of Murgatfoyd (p. in) to Cornwall, in Gilbert and Sulli- van's Ruddigore, must have been part of the intentional topsy-turvydom in which those two bright spirits delighted. Diminutives in -kin, from the Old Dutch suffix -ken, are still found in greatest number on the east coast that faces Holland, or in Wales, where they were introduced by the Flemish weavers who settled in Pembrokeshire in the reign of Henry 1. It is in the border counties, Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth, that we find the old Welsh names such as Cough, Lloyd, Onion (Enion), Vaughan (p. 216), The local Gapp, an opening in the cliffs, is pretty well confined to Norfolk, and Puddifoot belongs to Bucks and the adjacent counties as it did in 1273, The hall changes hands as one conquering race succeeds another bora at Swerick (Zurich) in Switchcrlctnd. The surname so ingeniously created appears to have left no pedagogic descendants. IE some cases the harassed Bumble lias lost patience, and substituted a plain English name for foreign absurdity. To the brain which christened Oliver Twist we owe Henry Price, a subject of the King of Poland, Lewis Jackson, a/* Portingall/' and Alex- ander Faith, a steward to the Venice Ambassador, born in the dukedom of Florence. IE the returns made outside the bounds of the city PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES 53 proper the aliens have added their own signatures, or in some cases made their marks. Jacob Alburtt signs himself as Jacob Fibers, and Croft Castell as Kraft Kassels. Harman James is the official translation of Hermann Jacobs, Mary Miller of Manja Moliner, and John Young of Jan le Jeune. Gyllyam Spease, for Wilbert Spirs, seems to be due to a Welsh constable, and Chrystyan Wyhdhames, for Cristian Welselm, looks like a conscientious attempt at Williams. One registrar, with a phonetic system of his own, has transformed the Dutch Moll into the more familiar Maule, and has enriched his list with Jannacay Yacopes for Jantje Jacobs. Lowe Luddow, who signs himself Lowij Ledou, seems to be Louis Ledoux. An alien who writes himself Jann Eisankraott (Ger. Eisenkraut ?) cannot reasonably complain at being transformed into John Isacrocke, but the substitution of John Johnson for Jansen Van- drusen suggests that this individual's case was taken at the end of a long day's work. These examples, taken at random, show how the French and Flemish names of the humbler refugees lost their foreign appearance. In many cases the transformation was etymologically justified. Thus, some of our Druitts and Drewetts may be descended from Martin Dmett> the first name on the list. But this is probably the common French name Drowt or Drouot, assimilated to the English Druitt, which we find in 1273. And both are diminutives of Drogo, which occurs i&DomesdayBook, and is, through Old French, the origin of our Drew. But in many cases the name has been so deformed that one can only guess at the con- tinental original. I should conjecture, for instance, that the curious name Shoppee is a corruption: of Chappms, the Old French for a carpenter, and that 54 THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES Jacob Shophouscy, registered as a German cutler, came from Schaffhausen. In this particular region of Eng- lish nomenclature a little guessing is almost excusable. The law of probabilities makes it mathematically cer- tain that the horde of immigrants included representa- tives of all the very common French family names, and it would be strange if Ckappuis were 'absent. This process of transformation is still going on in a small way, especially in our provincial manufacturing towns, in which most large commercial undertakings have slipped from the nerveless grasp of the Anglo- Saxon into the more capable and prehensile fingers of the foreigner " Hilda then learnt that Mrs, Gailcy had married a French modeller named Canon $cs , . , and that la course of time the. modeller had informally changed the name to Cannon, because no one in the five towns could pronounce the truo name rightly." (Arnold Bennett, Hilda Les$ways> i. ) This occurs most frequently in the case of Jewish names of German origin. Thus, LQWG becomes Lows or Lyons, Meyer is transformed into Myers, Gold- schmid into Goldsmith, Kohn into Cowan, Levy into Lee or Lewis, Salawon into Salmon, Ilirsch or Hertz into Hart, and so on. Sometimes a bolder flight is attempted " Leopold Norfolk Gordon had a house in Park Lane, and over so many people's money to kocp it up with. As may be guessed rom his naxao, ho was a Jew," (Morley Koberts, Lady PcM)fapt t ch. ii) The Jewish names of Gorman origin which are now so common in England mostly date from the begin- ning of the nineteenth century, when laws were passed in Austria, Prussia and Bavaria to compel all Jewish JEWISH NAMES 55 families to adopt a fixed surname. Many of them chose personal names, e.g. Jakobs, Levy, Moses, for this purpose, while others named themselves from their place of residence, e.g. Cassel, Speyer (Spires), Hamburg, often with the addition of the syllable -er, e.g. Dar- mesteter, Hamburger, Some families preferred de- scriptive names such as Selig (see p. 209), Sonnenschein, Goldmann, or invented poetic and gorgeous place-names such as Rosenberg, Blumenthal, Goldberg, Lilienfeld. The oriental fancy also showed itself in such names as Edelstein, jewel, Gluckstein, 1 luck stone, Rubinstein, ruby, Goldenkranz, golden wreath, etc. It is owing to the existence of the last two groups that our fashion- able intelligence is now often so suggestive of a wine- list. Among animal names adopted the favourites were Adler, eagle, Hirsch, hart, Lowe, lion, and Wolf, each of which is used with symbolic significance in the Old Testament. 1 Our Touchstone would seem also to be a nickname. The obituary of a Mr. Touchstone appeared in the Manchester Guardian, December 12, 1912. CHAPTER VI TOM, DICK AND HARRY '* Watte vocat, cm Thommc venit, neque Symme rctardat, BeM&quQ, Gibbe simul, Hykke venire jubent ; Colic Itirit, quern Gefff juvat nocumenta paranles. Cum quibus ad dauipnum Wille coire vovct. GriggG rapit, clurn 1) awe strepit, conies cst quibus Hobbe t Lorhyn ct in medio non minor cssc putat ; * Hudde ferit, quern Judd tcrit, dum Tebbe minatur, Jakke domosquc vires velllt et cnse nccat." (GowER, On Wat Tyler's Rebellion*) GOWER'S lines on the peasant rebels give us some Idea of the names which were most popular in the fourteenth century, and which have consequently Impressed themselves most strongly on our modern surnames. It will be noticed that one member of the modern triumvirate/ Harry, or Hal, Is absent. The great popularity of this name probably dates from a rather later period and is connected with the exploits of Henry V. Moreover, all the namc% with the possible exception of Hud, are of French Introduction and occur rarely before the Conquest. The old Anglo-Saxon names did survive, especially in the remoter parts of the country, and have given us many surnames* (see chu vii.), but even IE the Middle Ages people had a 1 The three names wore not definitely established till the nine- teenth century* Before that period they had rivals. French says Pierre et Paul* and German Hnm tmd K an d Gift-, Jiff-> and probably also Jebb, Gepp and Jepson, while to Fulk we owe Fewkes, Foakes, Fowkes, Yokes, etc., and perhaps in some cases Fox, But it is impossible to catalogue all the popular medieval font-names. Many others will be found scattered through this book as occasion or association suggests them. Three names whose poor representation is sur- prising are Arthur, Charles and George, the two great Kings of medieval romance and the patron saint of Merrie England. All three are fairly common in their unaltered form, and we find also Arter for Arthur. But they have given few derivatives, though Atkins, generally from Ad~, i.e. Adam, may some- times be from Arthur (cf. Bat for Bart, Matty for Martha, etc.). Arthur is a rare medieval font- name, a fact no doubt due to the sad fate of King John's nephew. Its modern popularity dates from the Duke of Wellington, while Charles and George were raised from obscurity by the Stuarts and the Bruns- wicks. To these might be added the German name Frederick, the spread of which was due to the fame of Frederick the Great. It gave, however, in French the dissimulated Ferry, one source of our surnames Ferry, 1 Ferris, though the former is generally local. i " For Frideric, the English have commonly used Frery and Fery, which hath been now a long time a Christian name in the ancient family of Tilncy, and kicky to their house, as they report." (Camden.) 62 TOM, DICK AND HARRY If, on the other hand, we take from Gower's list a name which is to-day comparatively rare, e.g. Gil- bert, we find it represented by a whole string of sur- names, e.g. Gilbart, Gibbs, Gibson, Gibbon, Gibbins, Gipps, Gipson, to mention only the most familiar* From the French dim, Gibelot we get the rather rare Giblett ; cf , Hewlett for Hcw-el-et, Hamlet for Ham-el-et (Hamo), etc. In forming patronymics from personal names, it is not always the first syllable that is selected. In Toll, Tollcy, TollcM, from Bartholomew, the second has sur- vived, while Philpot, dim. of Philip, has given PoUs. From Alexander we get Sanders and Saitndcrs, But, taking, for simplicity, two instances in which the first syllable has survived, we shall find plenty of instruction in those two pretty men Robert and Richard. We have seen (p. 60) that Roger gave Hodge and Dodge, which, in the derivatives Hod son and Dodson, have coalesced with names derived from Odo and the Anglo-Sax, Dodda (p. 76). Similarly Robert gave Rob, Hob l and Dob, and Richard gave Rick, Hick and Dick. Hob, whence Hobbs, was sharpened into Hop, wlience Hopps. The diminutive Hopkin t passing into Wales, gave Popkin, just as ap-Robin became Probyn, ap-Ilugh Pugh> ap-Oweu Bowcn, etc. In the north Dobbs became Dabbs (p 4 31). Hob also developed another rimed form Nob (cf. to " hob-nob " with anyone), whence Nolbs and Nabbs, the latter, of course, being sometimes rimed on Abbs, from Abel or Abraham, Bob is the latest variant and has not formed many surnames, Richard has a larger family than Robert, for, besides Rick, Hick and 1 1 "believe* however, that Hob is in some from Hubert, * ttftbert, I/o&art, etc. DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES 63 Dick, we have Rich and Hitch, Higg and Digg. The reader will be able to continue this genealogical tree for himself. The full or the shortened name can become a surname, either without change, or with the addition of the genitive -s or the word -son, 1 the former more usual in the south, the latter in the north. To take a simple case, we find as surnames William, Will, Williams, Wills, Williamson, Wilson. From the short form we get diminutives by means of the English suffixes -ie or -y (these especially in the north), -kin (see p. 48), and the French suffixes -et, -ot (often be- coming -at in English), -in, -on (often becoming -en* in English) . Thus Willy, Wilkin, Willett. I give a few examples of surnames formed from each class Ritchie (Richard), Oddy (Odo, whence also Oates), LamUe * (Lambert), Jelley (Julian) ; Dawkins, Dawkes (David), Hawkins, Hawkes (Hal), Gifkins (Geoffrey), Perkins, Perks (Peter), Rankin (Randolf) ; Gittett (Gil, see p. 59), Collett (Nicholas), Bartlett (Bartholomew), Rickctts (Richard), Marriott, Marry at (Mary), Elliott (Elias, see p. 85), Wyatt (Guy), Perrott (Peter) ; Collins (Nicholas), Jennings (John, see p. 95), Copping (Jacob, see p. 9), Rawlin (Raoul, the French form of Radolf, whence Rolf, Ralph, Relf), Paton (Patrick), Sisson (Siss, i.e. Cecilia), Gibbons (Gilbert), Beaton (Beatrice). A This suffix has squeezed out all the others, though Alice Johnson is theoretically absurd. In Mid. English we find daughter, father, mother, brother and other terms of relationship used in this way, a*id many others to which I have ascribed a continental origin, are found occasionally in England before the Conquest, but the weight of evidence shows that they were either adopted in England as French names or were corrupted in form by the Norman scribes and officials. To take other examples, our Tibbald, Tibbies, TMs suggest the Fr, Thibaut rather than the natural development of Anglo-Sax. Thiud- beald, i.e. Theobald ; and Ralph, Rdf, Roff, etc., show the regular Old French development of R&dwull, ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES 71 Radolf. Tibaut Wauter, i.e. Theobald Walter, who lived In Lancashire in 1242, had both his names in an Old French form. As a matter of fact, the various ways of forming nicknames, or descriptive names, are all used in the pre-Conquest personal names. We find Orme, ie. ser- pent or dragon (cf. Great Orme's Head), Wulf, i.e. Wolf, Hwita, ie. White, and its derivative Hwiting, now Whiting, Ssemann, i.e. Seaman, Bonda, i.e. Bond, Leofcild, dear child, now Leifchild, etc. But, except in the case of Orme, so common as the first element of place-names, I doubt the survival of these as purely personal names into the surname period and regard White, Seaman, Bond, Leif child rather as new epithets of Mid. English formation. Whiting is of course Anglo- Saxon, -ing being the regular patronymic suffix, Cf. Browning, Benning, Bering, Dunning, Gunning, Hemming, Kipping, Manning, and many others which occur in place-names. But not all names in -ing are Anglo-Saxon, e.g. Baring is German; cf. Behring, of the Straits ; and Jobling is Fr. Jobelin, a double dim, of Job. I will now give a few examples of undoubted sur- vival of these Anglo-Saxon compounds, showing how the suffixes have been corrupted and simplified. Among the commonest of these suffixes are -beald, -beorht, -cytel (p. 74, n.), -god, -'heard, -here, -man, -mund f -reed, -ric, -weald, -weard, -wine, 1 which survive in Rumbatt and Rwribold (Rumbeald), Attbright* and Allbult (Ealdbeorfit, i.e. Albert), Arkle (Earncytel), Att- good and Elgood (/Elf god), Everett (Eoforheard, i.e. 1 Bold, bright, kettle, god, strong, army, man, protection, counsel, powerful, ruling, guard, friend. Albert is of modern German introduction. 72 GODERIC AND GODXVA Everard), Gunter (Gundhere), Harman (Hereman), Redmond 1 (Raedmund), Aldred, Eldred (JEthelrsed or Ealdraed), Aldridge, Alderick, Eldridge (JSthelric or Ealdric), Thorold (Thurweald), and, through Fr. Turold, Turrell, Terrell, and Tyrrell, Harward and Harvard (Hereweard), Lewin (Leofwine). In popular use some of these endings got confused, e.g. Rumbold probably sometimes represents Rumweald, while Ken- nard no doubt stands for Coenweard as well as for Coenheard. Man and mund were often interchanged (p. 64), so that from Eastmund come both Esmond and Eastman. Gorman represents Gormund, and Almond (p. 97) is so common in the Middle Ages that it must sometimes be from ^Ethelmund. Sometimes the modern forms are imitative. Thus Allohin is for Ealhwine (Alcuin), and Goodyear, 1 Goodier and Goodair may represent Godhere. Good- beer, Godbehere, Gotobed are classed by Bardsley under Godbeorht, whence Godber. But in these three names the face value of the words may well be accepted (pp. 156, 203, 206). Wisgar or Wisgeard has given the imitative Whisker and Vizard, and, through French, the Scottish Wishart, which is thus the same as the famous Norman Guiscard. Garment and Rayment are for Garmund and Regenmund, i.e. Raymond. Other names which can be traced directly to the group of Anglo-Saxon names dealt with above are Elphick (Jilfheah), which in Norman French gave Alphege, Elmer (JElfmaer), Allnutt (JElfnotli), Alwin, Elwin, Elvin (Mfwine), Aylmer (JJthelmser), Aylward 1 Pure Anglo-Saxon, like tlie names of so many opponents ol English tyranny, Parnett is of course not Irish (p, 94), 2 This may, however, be taken literally. There is a German nanro and a Norfolk name Feaveryear, ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS 73 (JSthelweard), Kenrick (Coenric), Collar d (Ceolheard), Colvin (Ceolwine), Darwin (Deorwine), Edridge (Eadric), Aldwin, Auden (Ealdwlne), Baldry (Bealdred or Beald- ric), Fahtaff (Fastwulf), Filmer (Pilumaer), Frewin (Freowine), Garrard, Garrett, Jarrold (Gaerheard, Gaer- weald), but probably these are through French, Garbett (Garbeald, with which cf. the Italian Garibaldi), Gatliffe (Geatleof), Goddard (Godheard), Goodliffe (Godleof), Gunnell (Gunhild), Gunner l (Gunhere), Haines (Hagene), Haldane (Hselfdene), Hastings (Hasten, the Danish chief who gave his name to Hastings, formerly Haestinga-ceaster), Herbert (Herebeorht), Herrick (Hereric), Hildyard (Hildegeard), Hubert, Hubbard, Hobart, Hibbert (Hygebeorht) , Ingram (Ingelram), Lambert (Landbeorht), Livesey (Leofsige), Lemon (Leofman), Leveridge (Leofric), Loveridge (Luferic), May nar d (Maegenheard), Manfrey (Msegenfrith), Rayner (Regenhere), Raymond (Regenmund), Reynolds (Regen weald), Seabright (Sigebeorht or Saebeorht), Sayers* (S3eg3er), Sewell (Sasweald or Sigeweald), Seward (Sigeweard), Turbot (Thurbeorht), Thorough- good (Thurgod), Walthew (Waltheof), Warman (Wser- mund), Wyberd (Wigbeorht), Wyman (Wigmund), Willard (Wilheard), Winfrey (Winefrith), Ulyett and Woollett (Wulfgeat), Wolmer (Wulfmser), Woolridge (Wulfric). 1 It Is unlikely that this name is connected with gtm, a word of too late appearance. It may be seen over a shop in Brentford, perhaps kept by a descendant of the thane of the adjacent Gunners- bury. 3 The simple Sayer is also for tl assayer/' either of metals or of meat and drink " essayew, an essayer ; one that tasts, or takes an essay ; and particularly, an officer in the mint, who touches every kind of new coyne before it be delivered out " (Cotgrave). Robert y goldsmith, was a London citizen c* 1300, 74 GODERIC AND GODIVA In several of these, e.g. Fulcher, Hibbert, Lambert, Reynolds, the probability is that the name came through French. Where an alternative explanation Is possible, the direct Anglo-Saxon origin is generally the less probable. Thus, although Colling occurs as an Anglo-Saxon name, Ceilings is generally a variant of Collins (cf. Jennings for Jennins), and though Ham- mond is etymologically Haganmund, it is better to connect it with the very popular French name Hamon. Simmonds might come from Sigemund, but is more likely from Simon with excrescent -d (see P- 35). In many cases the Anglo-Saxon name was a simplex instead of a compound. The simple Cytel 1 survives as Chettle, Kettle. Beorn is one of the origins of Barnes. Brand also appears as Braund, Grim is common in place-names, and from Grima we have Grimes. Cola gives Cole, the name of a monarch of ancient legend, but this name is more usually from Nicolas (p. 57). Gunna is now Gunn, Serl has given the very common Searle, and Wicga is Wigg. From Hacun we have Hack and the dim. Hackett* To these might be added many examples of pure adjectives, such as Freo, Free, Froda (prudent), Proude, Goda, Good, Leof (dear), Leif, Leaf, Read (red), Read, Reid, Reed, Rica, Rich, Rudda (ruddy), Rudd and Rodd, Snel (swift, valiant), Snell, Swet, Sweet, etc., or epithets such as Boda (messenger), Bode, Cetnpa (warrior), Kemp, Cyta, Kite, Dreng (warrior), Dring, Eorl, Earl, Godcild, Goodchild, Nunna, Nunn, Oter, Otter, Puttoc 1 Connected with the kettle or cauldron of Norse mythology. The renowned Captain Kettle, described by his creator as a Welshman, must have descended from some hardy Norse pirate. Many names in this chapter are Scandinavian. MONOSYLLABIC NAMES 75 (kite), Puttock, Sasmann, Seaman, Spearhafoc, Spar- hawk, Spark (p. 12), Tryggr (true), Triggs, Unwine (unfriend), Unwin, etc. But many of these had died out as personal names and, in medieval use, were nicknames pure and simple. Finally, there is a very large group of Anglo-Saxon dissyllabic names, usually ending in -a } which appear to be pet forms of the longer names, though it is not always possible to establish the connection. Many of them have double forms with a long and short vowel respectively. It is to this class that we must refer the large number of our monosyllabic surnames^ which would otherwise defy interpretation. Anglo- Sax. Dodda gave Dodd, while Dodson's partner Fogg had an ancestor Focga. Other examples are Bacga, Bagg, Beana, Benn, Bota, Boot and dim. Booty, Botta, Bott, whence Botting, Bubba, Bubb, Btidda, Budd, Bynna, Binns, Cada, Cade, Cobba, Cobb, Coda, Good, Codda, Co&d, Cufia, Cuff, Deda, D cedes, Duda, Dowd, Duna, Down, Dunna, Dunn, Dutta, Dutt, Eada, Eade, Bdes, etc., Bbba, Ebbs, Eppa, Epps, Hudda, Hud, whence Hudson, Inga, Inge, Sibba, Sibbs, Sicga, Siggs, Tata, Tote and Tait, Tidda, Tidd, Tigga, Tigg, Toca, Tooke, Tucca ; Tuck, Wada, Wade, Wadda, Waddy, etc. Similarly French took from German a number of surnames formed from shortened names in -o, with an accusative in -on, e.g. Old Ger. Bodo has given Fr. Bout and Bouton, whence perhaps our Butt and Button, But the names exemplified above are very thinly represented In early records, and, though their exist- ence in surnames derived from place-names (Dodsley, Bagshaw, Bewsted, Bwdworth, Cobham, Ebbsworth, etc.) would vouch for them even if they were not recorded, 76 GODERIC AND GODIVA their comparative insignificance is attested by the fact that they form very few derivatives. Compare, for instance, the multitudinous surnames which go back to monosyllables of the later type of name, such as John and Hugh, with the complete sterility of the names above. Therefore, when an alternative deriva- tion for a surname is possible, it is usually ten to one that this alternative is right. Dodson is a simplified Dodgson, from Roger (p. 62) ; Benson belongs to Benedict, sometimes to Benjamin ; Cobbett is a dis- guised Cuthbert or Cobbold (cf. Garrett, p. 17) ; Down is usually local, at the down or dune; Dunn is medieval le dun, a colour nickname ; names in Ead-, Ed-, are usually from the medieval female name Eda (p. 60) ; Sibbs generally belongs to Sibilla or Sebastian ; Tail must sometimes be for Fr. Tete, with which cf . Eng. Head ; Tidd is an old pet form of Theodore ; and Wade is more frequently atte wade, i.e. ford* Even Ebbs and Epps are more likely to be shortened forms of Isabella, usually reduced to Ib or Ibbot (p. 94), or of the once popular Euphemia. To sum up, we may say that the Anglo-Saxon ele- ment in our surnames is much larger than one would imagine from Bardsley's Dictionary, and that it accounts, not only for names which have a distinctly Anglo-Saxon suffix or a disguised form of one, but also for a very large number of monosyllabic names which survive in isolation and without kindred. In this chapter I have only given sets of characteristic examples, to which many more might be added. It would be comparatively easy, with some imagination and a conscientious neglect of evidence, to connect the greater number of our surnames with the Anglo- Saxons, Thus Honeybatt might very well represent " HIDEOUS NAMES" 77 the Anglo-Sax. Hunbeald, but, In the absence of links, it is better to regard it as a popular perversion of Hannibal (p. 82). In dealing with this subject, the via media is the safe one, and one cannot pass in one stride from Hengist and Horsa to the Reformation period. Matthew Arnold, in his essay on the Function of Criticism at the Present Time, is moved by the case of poor Wragg, who was " in custody," to the following wail " What a touch of grossness in our race, what an original short- coming in the more delicate spiritual perceptions, is shown by the natural growth amongst us of such hideous names Higginbottom, Stiggins, But this is the poet's point of view. Though there may have been "no Wragg by the Ilissus," it is not a bad name, for, in its original form Ragg } it is the first element of the heroic Ragnar, and probably unrelated to Raggett, which is the medieval le ragged. Bugg, which one family exchanged for Norfolk Howard, is the Anglo-Saxon Bucgo, a name no doubt borne by many a valiant warrior. Stiggins, as we have seen (p. 12), goes back to a name great in history, and Higgin- lottom (p. 114) is purely geographical. CHAPTER VIII PALADINS AND HEROES "Morz est Rollanz, Deus en ad Fanme es ciels. Li Emperere en Rencesvals parvient. . . . Carles escriet : ' U estes vus, bels nies ? U FArcevesques e li quens Oliviers ? U est Gerins e sis cumpainz Geriers ? Otes u est e li quens Berengiers ? Ives e Ivories que j'aveie tant chiers ? Qu'est devenuz li Guascuinz Engeliers, Sansun li dux e Anseis li fiers ? U est Gerarz de Russillun li vielz, Li duze per que j'aveie laissiet ? ' " * (Chanson de Roland, 1. 2397.) IT Is natural that many favourite names should be taken from those of heroes of romance whose exploits were sung all over Europe by wandering minstrels. Such names, including those taken from the Round Table legends, usually came to us through French, though a few names of the British heroes are Welsh, e.g. Cradock from Caradoc (Caractacus) and Maddox from Madoc. But the Round Table stories were 1 " Dead is Roland, God has Ms soul in heaven. The Emperor arrives at Roncevaux. . . . Charles cries : * Where are you, fair nephew ? Where the archbishop (Turpin) and Count Oliver ? Where is Gerin and his comrade Gerier ? Where is Odo and count Berenger ? Ivo and Ivory whom I held so dear ? What has become of the Gascon Engelier ? Samson the duke and Anseis the proud ? Where is Gerard of Roussillon the old, the twelve peers whom 1 had left ? ' " THE ROUND TABLE 79 versified much later than the true Old French Chansons de Geste, which had a basis in the national history, and not many of Arthur's knights are immortalized as sur- names. We have Tristram, Lancelot, whence Lance, Percival, Gawain in Gavin, and Kay. But the last named is, like Key, more usually from the word we now spell " quay/' though Key and Keys can also be shop- signs, as of course Crosskeys is. Linnell is sometimes for Lionel, as Neil, 1 Neal for Nigel. The ladies have fared better. Vivian, which is sometimes from the masculine Vivien, is found in Dorset as Vye, and Isolt and Guinevere, which long survived as font-names in Cornwall, have given several names. From Isolt come Isard, IsiU, IzzarA, Izod, and many other forms, while Guinever appears as Genever, Jennifer, Gaynor, Gilliver, Gulliver? and perhaps also as Juniper. It is probably also the source of Genn and Ginn, though these , may come also from Eugenia or from Jane. The later prose versions of the Arthurian stories, such as those of Malory, are full of musical and picturesque names like those used by Mr. Maurice Hewlett, but this artificial nomenclature has left no traces in our surnames. Of the paladins the most popular was Roland or Rowland, who survives as Rowe, Rowlinson, Rolls, Rollit, etc., sometimes coalescing with the derivations of Raoul, another epic hero, Gerin or Geri gave Jeary, and Oates is the nominative (see p. 80, n. i) of Odo, an important Norman name. Berenger appears as Bar- ringer and Bellinger (p. 36). The simple Oliver is * But the Scottish Neil is a Gaelic name often exchanged for the unrelated Nigel. a There is also an Old Fr* Gtilafre whicli will account for some of the Gullivers. 8o PALADINS AND HEROES fairly common, but it also became the Cornish Olver. But perhaps the largest surname family connected with the paladins is derived from the Breton Ives or I von, 1 whose name appears in that of two English towns. It is the same as Welsh Evan, and the Yvain of the Arthurian legends, and has given us Ives, Ivison, I'vatts, etc. The modern surname Ivory is usually an imitative form of Every or Avery (p. 82). Gerard has a variety of forms in Ger- and Gar-, Jer- and Jar- (see p. 32). The others do not seem to have survived, except the redoubtable Archbishop Turpin, whose fame is probably less than that of his name- sake Dick. Besides the paladins, there are many heroes of Old French epic whose names were popular during the two centuries that followed the Conquest. Ogier le Danois, who also fought at Roncevaux, has given us Odgers ; Fierabras occasionally crops up as Fairlrass, Firebrace; Aimeri deNarbonne, from Almaric,* whence Ital. Amerigo, is in English Amery, Emery, Imray, etc. ; Renaud de Montauban is represented by Reynolds (p. 74) and Reynell. The famous Doon de Mayence may have been an ancestor of Lorna, and the equally famous Garin, or Warin, de Monglane has given us Gerring, Gearing, Waring, sometimes Warren, and the diminutives Garnett and W&rnett. Milo, of Greek origin, became Miles, with dim. Millett, but the chief origin of the surname Miles is a contracted form of the common font-name Michael. Amis and Amiles were the David and Jonathan of Old French epic and * A number of Old French names had an accusative in -on or -ain. Thus we find Otes, Oton, Ives, Ivain, and feminines such as Ide, Idain, all of which survive as English surnames, s A metathesis of Amalric, which is found in Anglo-Saxon, THE CHANSONS DE GESTE 81 the former survives as Ames, Amies, and Amos, the last being an imitative form. We have also Berner from Bernier, Bertram from Bertran, Farrant from Ferrand, Terry and Terriss from Thierry, the French form of Ger. Dietrich (Theodoric), which, through Dutch, has given also Derrick. Gamier, from Ger. Werner, is our Garner and Warner, though these have other origins (pp. 154, 185). Dru ; from Drogo, has given Drew, with dim. Druitt (p. 53), and Druce, though the latter may also come from the town of Dreux. Walrond and Waldron are for Waleran, usually Galeran, and King Pippin had a retainer named Morant. Saint Leger, or Leodi- garius, appears as Ledger, Ledgard, etc., and sometimes in the shortened Legg. Among the heroines we have Orlell from Orable, while Blancheflour may have sug- gested Lilly white ; but the part played by women in the Chansons de Geste was insignificant. As this element in our nomenclature has hitherto received no attention, it may be well to add a few more examples of names which occur very frequently in the Chansons de Geste and which have undoubted repre- sentatives in modern English, Allard was one of the Four Sons of Aymon. The name is etymologically identical with Aylward (p. 73), but in the above form has reached us through French. Acard or Achard is represented by Haggard, Haggett, and Hatchard, Hatchett, though Haggard probably has another origin (p. 221). Harness is imitative for Harnais, Herneis, Clarabutt is for Clarembaut ; ct ArchbuU for Archem- baut, the Old French form of Archibald, Archbold. Durrani is Durand, still a very common French sur- name. Ely is Old Fr. Elie, i.e. Elias (p. 85), which had the dim. Elyot. 1 We also find Old Fr. Helye, 1 For other names belonging to this group see p. 85, 7 82 PALADINS AND HEROES whence our Healey. Enguerrand Is telescoped to Ingram, though this may also come from the English form Ingelram. Fawkes is the Old Fr. Fauques, nominative (see p. 80, n. i) of Faucon, i.e. falcon. Galpin is contracted from Galopin, a famous epic thief, but it may also come from the common noun galopin " Galloppins, under cookes, or scullions in monasteries." (Cotgrave.) In either case it means a " runner/' Henfrey is from Heinfrei or Hainfroi, identical with Anglo-Sax. Haganfrith, and Manser from Manesier. Neame (p. 193) may sometimes represent Naime, the Nestor of Old French epic and the sage counsellor of Charlemagne. Richer, from Old Fr. Richier, has generally been absorbed by the cognate Richard. Aubrey and Avery are from Alberic, cognate with Anglo-Sax. ^Elfric. An unheroic name like Siggins may be connected with several heroes called Seguin. Nor are the heroes of antiquity altogether absent. Along with Old French national and Arthurian epics there were a numberof romances based on the legends of Alexander, Caesar, and the tale of Troy. Alexander, or Saunder, was the favourite among this class of names, especially in Scotland. Cayzer was generally a nick- name (p. 124), its later form Ccesar being due to Italian influence, 1 and the same applies to Hannibal, 1 when it is not an imitative form of the female name Annabel, also corrupted into HoneybalL Both Dionisius and Dionisia were once common, and have survived as 1 Julius Cesar, physician to Queen Elizabeth, was a Venetian (Bardsley). 3 But the frequent occurrence of this name and its corruptions in Cornwall suggests that it may really have been introduced by Carthaginian sailors. ANTIQUE NAMES 83 Dennis, Dennett, Denny, and from the shortened Dye we get Dyson. But this Dionisius was the patron saint of France. Apparent names of heathen gods and goddesses are almost always due to folk-etymology, e.g. Bacchus is for back-house or bake-house, and the ancestors of Mr. Wegg's friend Venus came from Venice. CHAPTER IX THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR ** * Now you see, brother Toby/ he would say, looking up, * that Cnristian names are not such indifferent things ; had Luther here been, called by any other name but Martin, he would have been damn'd to all eternity' " (Tristram Shandy, ch. xxxv). THE use of biblical names as font-names does not date from the Puritans, nor are surnames derived from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob necessarily Jewish. The Old Testament names which were most popular among the medieval peasants from whom we nearly all spring were naturally those connected with the most pic- turesque episodes of sacred history. Taking as an example the father of all men, we find derived from the name Adam the following : Adams, A damson, Adcock, Addis, Addison, Adds, Addy, Ade, Ades, Adey, Adie, Ady, Addey, A day, A dee, Addy man, Adkin, Adkins, Adkinson, Adnett, 1 Adnitt, Adnet, Adnot, Atkin, Atkins, Atkinson, and the northern Aitken, etc, This list, compiled from Bardsley's Dictionary of Surnames, is certainly not exhaustive. Probably Taddy is rimed on Addy as Taggy is on Aggy (Agnes). To put together all the derivatives of John or Thomas would be a task almost beyond the wit of man. Names in Abb-, App- } may come from either Abraham or Abel, and from Abbs we also have Nabbs. Cain was of 1 Adenet (littl Adam) le Roi was an Old French epic hero. 84 OLD TESTAMENT NAMES 85 course unpopular. Cain, Cane, Kain, when not Manx, is from the town of Caen or from Norman ,qune, an oak. Moses appears in the French form Moyes (Moise) as early as 1273, and still earlier as Moss, Of the patri- archs the favourites were perhaps Jacob and Joseph, the name Jessop from the latter having been influenced by ItaL Giuseppe. Benjamin has sometimes given Ben- son and Bennett, but these are generally for Benedict (p. 46). The Judges are poorly represented, except Samson, a name which has obviously coalesced with the derivatives of Samuel. David had, of course, an immense vogue, especially in Wales (for some of its derivatives see p. 57), and Solomon was also popu- lar, the modern Salmon not always being a Jewish name. But almost the favourite Old Testament name was Elijah, Elias, which, usually through its Old French form Elie, whence Ely, is the parent of Ellis, Elliot, and many other names in El-, some of which, however, have to be shared with Ellen and Alice (p. 95). Job was also popular, and is easily recognized in Jobson, Jobling, etc., but less easily in Chubb (p. 32) and Jupp. The intermediate form was the obsolete Joppe. Among the prophetic writers Daniel was an easy winner, Dann, Dance (p. 10), Bannatt, Dancock, etc. Balaam is an imitative spelling of the local Baylham. In considering these Old Testament names it must be remembered that the people did not possess the Bible in the vernacular. The teaching of the parish priests made them familiar with selected episodes, from which they naturally took the names which appeared to contain the greatest element of holiness or of war- like renown. It is probable that the mystery plays were not without influence; for the personal name 86 THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR was not always a fixed quantity, and many of the names mentioned in the preceding paragraph may have been acquired rather on the medieval stage than at the font. This would apply with still more force to names taken from the legends of saints and martyrs on which the miracle plays were based. We even find the names Saint, Martyr and Postitt, the regular aphetic form of apostle (p. 33), just as we find King and Pope. Camden, speaking of the freedom with which English names are formed, quotes a Dutchman, who "When lie heard of English men called God and Devil, said, that the English borrowed names from all things whatsoever, good or bad." The medieval name Godde may of course be for Good, Anglo-Sax. Goda, but Ledieu is common enough in France. The name seems to be obsolete, unless it is disguised as Goad. The occurrence in medieval rolls of Diabolus and le Diable shows that Deville need not always be for de Eyville. There was probably much competition for this important part, and the name would not be always felt as uncomplimentary. Among German surnames we find not only Teufel, but also the compounds Manteufel and Teufelskind. Coming to the New Testament, we find the four Evangelists strongly represented, especially the first and last. Matthew appears not only in an easily recognizable form, e.g. in Matheson, but also as Mayhew and Mayo, Old Fr. Mahieu. From the latter form we have the shortened May and Mee, whence Mayes, Makins, Meakin 3 Meeson, 1 and sometimes Mason, Mark is one of the sources of March 1 One family of Meeson claims descent NEW TESTAMENT NAMES 87 (p. 90), as Luke is of Luck, whence Lucock, Luckett, etc., though we more often find the learned form Lucas, Of John there is no need to speak. Of the apostles the great favourites, Simon, or Peter, John, and Bartholomew have already been men- tioned. Almost equally popular was Philip, whence Philp, Phipps } Phelps, and the dim. Philpot, whence the aphetic Pott, Potts. Andrew flourished naturally in Scotland, its commonest derivative being Anderson, while Dendy is for the rimed form Dandy. Paul has of course had a great influence and is responsible for Pawson or For son, Pawling, Poison, Pollett, and most names in Po/-. 1 It is also, in the form Powell, assimi- lated to the Welsh Ap Howel. Paul is regularly spelt Poule by Chaucer, and St. Paul's Cathedral is often called Powles in Tudor documents. Paul's com- panions are poorly represented, for Barnby is local, while names in SiU and Sel- come from shortened form of Cecil, Cecilia, and Silvester. Another great name from the Acts of the Apostles is that of the protomartyr Stephen, among the numerous derivatives of which we must include Stennett and Stimpson. Many non-biblical saints whose names occur very frequently have already been mentioned, e.g. Antony, Bernard, Gregory, Martin, Lawrence, Nicholas, etc. To these may be added Augustine, or Austin, Chris- topher, or Kit, with the dim. Christie and the patrony- mic Kitson t Clement, whence a large family of names in Clem-, Gervase or Jarvis, Jerome, sometimes repre- sented by Jen am, and Theodore, or Tidd (cf . Tibb from Theobald), who becomes in Welsh Tudor. Vincent has given Vince, Vincey and Vincett, and Baseley, Blazey * This does not of course apply to Cornish names in Pol- (p. 67). 88 THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR are from Basil and Blaise. The Anglo-Saxon saints are poorly represented, though probably most of them survive in a disguised form, e.g. Price is sometimes for Brice, Cuthbert has sometimes given Cubitt and Cobbett, and also Cwtts. Bottle sometimes represents Botolf, Neate may be for Neot, and Chad (Ceadda) sur- vives as Chatt and in many local names. The Cornish Tangye is from the Breton St. Tanneguy. The Archangel Michael has given one of our commonest names, Mitchell (p. 46). This is through French, but we have also the contracted Miall 1 " At Michael's term had many a trial, Worse than the dragon and St. Michael." (Hudibras, III. ii. 51.) This name exists in several other forms, e.g. Mihell, Myhill, Mighill, and most frequently of all as Miles (see p. 80). The reader will remember the famous salient of Saint-Mihiel, on the Meuse, held by the Germans for so long a period of the war. From Gabriel we have Gabb, Gabbett, etc. The common rustic pronunciation Gable has given Cable (p. 32). Among female saints we find Agnes, pronounced Annis, the derivatives of which have become confused with those of Anne, or Nan, Catherine, whence Catt, Catlin, etc., Cecilia, Cicely, whence Sisley, and of course Mary and Margaret. For these see p. 93, St. Bride, or Bridget, survives in Kirkbride. A very interesting group of surnames are derived from font-names taken from the great feasts of the Church, date of birth or baptism/ etc. These are more often French or Greco-Latin than English, a fact to be explained by priestly influence. Thus Christmas * Cf. Vialls from Yitalis, also a saint's name, s Names of this class were no doubt also sometimes given to foundlings, FEAST-DAYS 89 is much less common than Noel or Nowell, but we also find Midwinter (p. 23) and Yule. Ea$terho,$ a local origin (from a place in Essex) and also represents Mid, Eng. estre, a word of very vague meaning for part of a build- ing, originally the exterior, from Lat. extra. It sur- vives in Fr. les etres d'une maison. Hester, to which Bardsley gives the same origin, I should rather con- nect with Old Fr. hestre (hetre], a beech. However that may be, the Easter festival is represented in our surnames by Pascatt, Cornish Pascoe, and Pask, Pash t Pace, Pack. Patch, formerly a nickname for a jester (p. 187), from his motley clothes, is also sometimes a variant of Pash. And the dim. Patchett has become confused with Padgett, from Padge, a rimed form of Madge. Pentecost is recorded as a personal name in Anglo-Saxon times. Michaelmas is now Middlemas (see p. 40), and Tiffany is an old name for Epiphany. It comes from Greco-Latin theophania (while Epi- phany represents epiphania), which gave the French female name Tiphaine, whence our Tiffin. Lam- mas (loaf mass) is also found as a personal name, but there is a place called Lammas in Norfolk. We have compounds of day in Halliday or Holiday, Hay- day, for high day, Loveday, a day appointed for re- conciliations, and Hockaday, for a child born during Hocktide, which begins on the I5th day after Easter. It was also called Hobday, though it is hard to say why ; hence the name Hobday, unless this Is to be taken as the day, or servant (see p. 177), in the service of Hob ; cf. Hobman. The days of the week are puzzling, the only one at all common being Munday, though most of the others are found in earlier nomenclature. We should rather expect special attention to be given to Sunday and go THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR Friday, and, in fact, Sonntag and Freytag are by fax the most usual in German, while Dimanche and its per- versions are common in France, and Vendredi also occurs. This makes me suspect some other origin, probably local, for Munday, the more so as Fr. Di- manche, Demange, etc., is often for the personal name Dominicus, the etymology remaining the same as that of the day-name, the Lord's day. Parts of the day seem to survive in Noon, Eve, and Morrow, but Noon is local, Fr. Noyon (cf. Moon, earlier Mohun, from Moyon), Eve is the mother of mankind, and Morrow is for moor-wro, the second element being Mid. Eng. wra, corner, whence Wray. We find the same difficulty with the names of the months. Several of these are represented in French, but our March has four other origins, from March in Cambridgeshire, from march, a boundary, from marsh, or from Mark ; while May means in Mid. English a maiden (p. 195), and Is also a dim. of Matthew (p. 86), The names of the seasons also present difficulty. Spring usually corresponds to Fr. La Fontaine (see p. 22), but we find also Lent, 1 the old name for the season, and French has Printemps. Summer and Winter f are found very early as nick- names, as are also Frost and Snow 8 ; but why always Summers or Somers with s and Winter without ? The latter has no doubt in many cases absorbed Vinter, vintner (see p. 41), but this will not account for the complete absence of genitive forms. And what has become of the other season ? We should 1 The cognate Ger, Lent is fairly common, hence the frequency of Lent in America. * Winter was one of HerewarcTs most faithful comrades, a Two other common nicknames were Flint and SteeL MONTH NAMES 91 not expect to find the learned word " autumn/' but neither Fall nor Harvest, the true English equivalents, are at all common as surnames. I regard this group, viz. days, months, seasons, as one of the least clearly accounted for in our nomenclature, and cannot help thinking that the more copious examples which we find in French and German are largely distorted forms due to the imitative instinct, or are susceptible of other explanations. This is certainly true in some cases, e.g. Fr. Mars is the regular French development of Medardus/ a saint to whom a well-known Parisian church is dedicated ; and the relationship of Janvier to Janus may be via the Late Lat. januarim, for janitor, a doorkeeper. 1 This was the saint who, according to Ingoldsby, lived largely on oysters obtained by the Red Sea shore. At his church in Paris were performed the c miracles ' of the Quietists in the seventeenth century. When the scenes that took place became a scandal, the government intervened, with the result that a wag adorned the church door with the following : "De par le Roi, defense & Dieu De faire miracle en ce lieu." CHAPTER X METRONYMICS " During the whole evening Mr, Jellyby sat in a corner with his head against the wall, as if he were subject to low spirits/' (Bleak House, ch. iv.) BARDSLEY first drew attention to the very large number of surnames derived from an ancestress. His views have been subjected to much ignorant criticism by writers who, taking upon themselves the task of defending medieval virtue, have been unwilling to accept this terrible picture of the moral condition of England, etc. This anxiety is misplaced. There are many reasons, besides illegitimacy, for the adoption of the mother's name. In medieval times the children of a widow, especially posthumous children, would often assume the mother's name. Widdowson itself is sufficiently common. In the case of second marriages the two families might sometimes be distinguished by their mothers' names. Orphans would be adopted by female relatives, and a medieval Mrs. Joe Gargery would probably have impressed her own name rather than that of her husband on a medieval Pip. In a village which counted two Johns or Williams, and few villages did not, the children of one might assume, or rather would be given by the public voice, the mother's name. Finally, metronymics can be collected in hundreds by anyone who cares to work through a few early registers. 9* FEMALE FONT-NAMES 93 Thus, In the Lancashire Inquests 1205-1307 occur plenty of people described as the sons of Alice, Beatrice, Christiana, Eda, Eva, Mariot, Matilda, Quenilda/ Sibilla, Ysolt. Even if illegitimacy were the only reason, that would not concern the philologist. Female names undergo the same course of treatment as male names. Mary gave the diminutives Marion and Mariot, whence Marriott. It was popularly shortened into Mai (cf. Hal for Harry), which had the diminutive Mally. From these we have Mawson and Malleson, the former also belonging to Maud. Mai and Mally became Mol and Molly, hence Motti- son. The rimed forms Pol, Polly are later, and names in Pol- usually belong to Paul (p. 87). The name Morris has three other origins (the font-name Maurice, the nickname Moorish, and the local marsh], but both Morris and Morrison are sometimes to be referred to Mary. Similarly Margaret, popularly Mar- get, became Mag, Meg, Mog, whence Meggitt, Moxon, etc. The rarity of Maggot is easily understood, but Poll Maggot was one of Jack Sheppard's accom- plices and Shakespeare uses maggot-pie for magpie (Macbeth, iii, 4). Meg was rimed into Peg, whence Peggs, Mog into Pog, whence Pogson, and Madge into Padge, whence Padgett, when this is not for Patchett (p. 89), or for the Fr. Paget, usually explained as Smallpage. The royal name Matilda appears in the contracted Maud, Mould, Moule, Mott, Mahood (Old Fr. Maheut). Its middle syllable Till gave Tilly, Tillson and the dim. Tillet, Tittot, whence Tillotson. From Beatrice we have Bee, Beaton and Bett$> and the northern Seattle, which are not connected with the great name Elizabeth. This Is in medieval rolls 1 An Anglo-Saxon name, Cynehild, whence QmnneU, 94 METRONYMICS represented by its cognate Isabel, of which the shortened form was Bell (p. 8), or Ib, the latter giving Ibbot, Xbbotson, and the rimed forms Tib-, Nib-, Bib-, Lib-. Here also belong Ebbs and Epps rather than to the Anglo-Sax. Ebba (see p. 76), Many names which would now sound somewhat ambitious were common among the medieval peasantry and are still found in the outlying parts of England, especially Devon and Cornwall. Among the characters in Mr. Eden Phillpotts's Widecombe Fair are two sisters named Sibley and Petronell. From Sibilla, now Sibyl, come most names in Sib-, though this was used also as a dim. of Sebastian (see also p. 75), while Petronilla has given Parnell, Purnell. As a female name it suffered the eclipse to which certain names are accidentally subject, and became equivalent to wench. References to a "prattling Parnel" are common in old writers, and the same fate overtook it in French " Taisez-vous, pfaonnelU " (Tartuft, L i). Mention has already been made of the survival of Guinevere (p. 79), From Cassandra we have Cash, Cass, Case, and Casson, from Idonia, Ide, Iddins, Iddison ; these were no doubt confused with the deriva- tives of Ida. William filius Idae is in the Fine Rolls of John's reign, and John Idonyesone occurs there, temp. Edward L Pirn, as a female font-name, may be from Euphemia, and Siddons appears to belong to Sidonia, while the pretty name Avice appears as Avis and Haweis, From Lattice, Lat, latitia, joy, we have Letts , LeUson t while the corresponding Joyce, Lat, jocosa, merry, has become confused with Fr, Josse (see p. 10). Anstey, Anstis, is from Anastasia, Precious from Preciosa, and Royce from Rohesia* DOUBTFUL CASES 95 It is often difficult to separate patronymics from metronymics. We have already seen (p. 60) that names in Ed- may be from Eda or from Edward, while names in Gil- must be shared between Julian, Juliana, Guillaume, Gilbert, and Giles. There are many other cases like Julian and Juliana, e.g. Custance is for Constance, but Cust may also represent the masculine Constant, while among the "derivatives of Philip we must not forget the warlike Philippa. Or, to take pairs which are unrelated, Kitson may be from Christopher or from Catherine, and Mattison from Matthew or from Martha, which became Matty and Patty, the derivatives of the latter coalescing with those of Patrick (p. 63). It is obvious that the derivatives of Alice would be confused with those of Allen, while names in El- may represent Elias or Eleanor. Also names in A /-and El- are sometimes themselves confused, e.g. the Anglo-Saxon JElfgod appears both as Attgood and Elgood. More Nelsons are derived from Neil, i.e. Nigel, than from Nell, the rimed dim. of Ellen. EmmeU is a dim. of Emma, but Empson may be a shortened Emerson from Emery (p. 80). The rather common- place Tibbies stands for both Theobald and Isabella, and the same is true of all names in Tib- and some in Teb-. Lastly, the coalescence of John, the commonest English font-name, with Joan, the earlier form of Jane, was inevitable, while the French forms Jean and Jeanne would be undistinguishable in their derivatives. These names between them have given an immense number of surnames, the masculine or feminine interpretation of which must be left to the reader's imagination. CHAPTER XI LOCAL SURNAMES " Now as men have always first given names unto places, so hath it afterwards grown usuall that men have taken their names from places" (VERSTEGAN, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence). THERE is an Idea cherished by some people that the possession of a surname which is that of a village or other locality points to ancestral ownership of that region. This is a delusion. In the case of quite small features of the landscape, e.g. Bridge, Hill, the name was given from place of residence. But in the case of counties, towns and villages, the name was usually acquired when the locality was left. Thus John Tiler leaving Acton, perhaps for Acton's good, would be known in his new surroundings as John Acton. A moment's reflection will show that this must be so. Scott is an English name, the aristocratic Scotts beyond the border representing a Norman family Escot, originally of Scottish origin. English, early spelt Inglis, is a Scottish name. The names Cornish and Cornwallis first became common in Devonshire, as Devenish did outside that county, French and Francis, Old Fr. le franceis, are English names, just as Lmglois (V Anglais) is common in France, For the same reason Cutler is a rare name in Sheffield, where aH are cutlers. By exception the name Curnow, which is Cornish for a Cornishman, is fairly common in its 96 CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES 97 native county, but it was perhaps applied especially to those inhabitants who could only speak the old Cornish language. The local name may range in origin from a country to a plant (France, Darbi shire, Lankester, Ashby, Street, House, Pound, Plumptre, Daisy] , and, mathematically stated, the size of the locality will vary in direct pro- portion to the distance from which the immigrant has come. Terentius Afer was named from a continent. I cannot find a parallel in England, but names such as the nouns France, Ireland, Petting ell (Portugal), or the adjectives Dench, Mid. Eng. dense, Danish, Norman, Welsh, (Walsh, Wallis, etc.), Allman (AUemand), often perverted to Almond, were considered a sufficient mark of identification for men who came from foreign parts. But the untravelled inhabitant, if distinguished by a local name, would often receive it from some very minute feature of the landscape, e.g. Solomon, Daisy may have been descended from a Robert Dayeseye, who lived in Hunts in 1273. It is not very easy to see how such very trifling surnames as this last came into existence, but its exiguity is surpassed in the case of a prominent French airman who bears the appropriately buoyant name of Brindejonc, perhaps from some ancestor who habitually chewed a straw. An immense number of our countrymen are simply named from the points of the compass, slightly dis- guised in N orris, Anglo~Fr. U noreis, 1 Sothemn, the southron, and Sterling, for Easterling, a name given to the Hanse merchants. Westray was formerly U westreis. A German was to our ancestors, as he still is to sailors, a Dutchman, whence our name Douch, 1 The corresponding U suyyeis is now represented by Surridge. 8 98 LOCAL SURNAMES Ger. deutsch, Old High Ger. tiutisc, which, through Old French tieis, has given Tyas. 1 Butnotevery localname is to betakenat itsface value, Holland is usually from one of the Lancashire Hollands, and England may be for Mid. Eng. ing-land, the land of Ing (ct Ingulf, Ingold, etc.), a personal name which is the first element in many place-names, or from ing, a meadow by a stream. Holyland is not Palestine, but the holly-land. Hampshire is often for Hallamshire, a district in Yorkshire. Dane is a variant of Mid. Eng. dene, a valley, the inhabitant of Denmark having given us Dench (p. 97) and Dennis (le daneis). Visitors to Margate will remember the valley called the Dane, which stretches from the harbour to St. Peters. Saxon is not racial, but a perversion of sexton (p. 167). Mr. Birdofredum Sawin, commenting on the methods employed in carrying out the great mission of the Anglo-Saxon race, remarks that " Saxons would be handy To du the buryin' down here upon the Rio Grandy " (Lowell, Biglow Papers). The name Cockayne was perhaps first given derisively to a sybarite * r Paris est pour !e riche un pays de Cocagne " (Boileau), but It may be an imitative form of Coken in Durham. Names such as Morris, i.e. Moorish, or Sarson, I.e. Saracen (but also for Sara-son), are rather nicknames, due to complexion or to an ancestor who was mine host of the Saracen's Head. Moor is sometimes of similar origin. Russ, like Rush, is one of the many forms of Fr. 1 Tyar$> or Tyers, which Bardsley puts with this, seems to be rather Fr. Thiers, Lat, tertius. COUNTIES AND TOWNS 99 roux, red-complexioned (p. 21). Pole is for Pool, the native of Poland being called Polack " He smote the sledded Polack on the ice " (Hamlet, I. i). But the name Pollock is local (Renfrewshire). As a rule it will be found that, while most of our counties have given family names, sometimes cor- rupted, e.g. Lankshear, Willsher, Cant, Chant, for Kent, with which we may compare Anguish for Angus, the larger towns are rather poorly represented, the movement having always been from country to town, and the smaller spot serving for more exact description. An exception is Bristow (Bristol), Mid. Eng. brig-stow, the place on the bridge, the great commercial city of the west from which so many medieval seamen hailed ; but the name is sometimes from Bur stow (Surrey), and there were possibly smaller places called by so natural a name, just as the name Bradford, i.e. broad ford, may come from a great many other places than the Yorkshire wool town. Rossiter is generally for Ro- chester, but also for Wroxeter (Salop) ; Coggeshall is well disguised as Coxall, Barnstaple as Bastable, Maidstone as Mayston, Stockport as Stopford. On the other hand, there is not a village of any antiquity but has, or once had, a representative among surnames. The provinces and towns of France and Flanders have given us many common surnames. From names of provinces we have Burgoyne and Burgin, Champain and Champneys (p. 20), Gascoyne and Gaskin, Mayne, Mansell, Old Fr. Mancel (manceau), an inhabitant of Maine or of its capital Le Mans, Brett and Britton, Fr. le Bret and le Breton, Pickard, Power, some- times from Old Fr. Pohier, a Picard, Peto, formerly Peitow, from Poitou, Poid&oin and Puddifin, for ioo LOCAL SURNAMES Poitevin, Loring, Old Fr. le Lohereng, the man from Lorraine, assimilated to Fleming, Hanway, an old name for Hainault, Brabazon, le Brabazon, and Brebner, formerly le Brabaner, Angwin, for Angevin, Flinders, a perversion of Flanders, Barry, which is sometimes for Bern, and others which can be identified by everybody. Among towns we have Allenson, Alengon, Amy as, Amiens, Ainger, Angers, Aris, Arras, Bevis, Beauvais, Bullen, Boulogne, Bloss, Blois, Bursell, Brussels, Callis and Challis, Calais, Challen, from one of the French towns called Chalon or Chalons, Chaworth, Cahors, Druce, Dreux, Gaunt, Gand (Ghent), Luck, Luick (Liege), Loving, Louvain, Malins, Malines (Mechlin), Raynes, Rennes and Rheims, Roan, Rouen, Sessions, Soissons, Stamp, Old Fr. Estampes (ittampes), Turney, Tournay, etc. The name de Verdun is common enough in old records for us to connect with it both the fascinating Dolly and the illustrious Harry. To the above may be added, among German towns, Cullen, Cologne, and Lubbock, Lubeck, and, from Italy, Janes, Genes (Genoa), Janaway or fanways, i.e. Genoese, and Lambard or Lombard. Familiar names of foreign towns were often anglicized. Thus we find Hamburg called Hamborough, Bruges Bridges, and Tours Towers. To the town of Angers we sometimes owe, besides Ainger, the forbidding names Anger and Danger. In many local names of foreign origin the preposition de has been incorporated, e.g. Dalmain, d'Allemagne, sometimes corrupted into Dallman and Dollman, though these are also for Doleman, from the East Anglian dole, a boundary, Dallison, d'Alengon, Danvers, cTAnvers, Antwerp, Dever&ux, d'ltvreux, Daubeney, NAMES PRECEDED BY DE 101 Dabney, d'Aubigny, Disney, d'Isigny, etc. Doyle is a later form of Doyley, or Dolley, for d/Oiiilli, and Darcy and Durfey were once d'Arcy and d J Urf6. Dew Is sometimes for de En. Sir John de Grey, justice of Chester, had In 1246 two Alice in Wonderland clerks named Henry de Eu and William de Ho. A familiar example, which has been much disputed, Is the Cam- bridgeshire name Death, which some of its possessors prefer to write D'Aeth or De Ath. Bardsley rejects this, without, I think, sufficient reason. It Is true that it occurs as de Deihe in the Hundred Rolls, but this is not a serious argument, for we find also de Daubeney (see p. 100), the original de having already been absorbed at the time the Rolls were compiled. This retention of the de is also common in names derived from spots which have not become recognized place- names; see p. 140. But to derive a name of obviously native origin from a place in France Is a snobbish, If harmless, delusion. There are quite enough moor leys In England without explaining Morley by Morlalx. To connect the Mid. English nickname Longfellow with Longueville, or the patronymic Hansom (p. 36) with Anceaumville, betrays the same belief In phonetic epilepsy that Inspires the derivation of Barber from the chapelry of Salnte-Barbe. The fact that there are at least three places In England called Carnngfon has not prevented one writer from seeking the origin of that name in the appropriate locality of Chaxenton, CHAPTER XII SPOT NAMES ** In ford, In Ham, in ley and tun The most of English surnames run" (VERSTBGAN). VERSTEGAN'S couplet, even if it be not strictly true, makes a very good text for a discourse on our local names. The ham, or home, and the ton, or town, originally an enclosure (ct Ger. Zaun, hedge), were, at any rate in a great part of England, the regular nucleus of the village, which in some cases has become the great town and in others has decayed away and disappeared from the map. In an age when wool was our great export, flock keeping was naturally a most important calling, and the ley, or meadow land, would be quickly taken up and associated with human activity. When bridges were scarce, fords were im- portant, and it is easy to see how the inn, the smithy, the cartwright's booth, etc., would naturally plant themselves at such a spot and form the commence- ment of a hamlet, Each of these four words exists by itself as a specific place-name and also as a surname, In fact Lee and Ford are among our commonest local surnames. In the same way the local origin of such names as Clay and Chalk may be specific as well as general. But I 102 ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES 103 do not propose to deal here with the vast subject of our English village names, but only with the essential elements of which they are composed, elements which were often used for surnominal purposes long before the spot itself had developed into a village. 1 Thus the name Oakley must generally have been borne by a man who lived on meadow land which was surrounded or dotted with oak-trees. But I should be shy of explaining a given village called Oakley in the same way, because the student of place-names might be able to show from early records that the place was originally an ey, or island, and that the first syllable is the disguised name of a medieval churl. These four simple etymons themselves may also become perverted. Thus -ham is sometimes confused with -holm (p. 117), -ley, as I have just suggested, may in some cases contain -ey, -ton occasionally interchanges with -don and -stone, and -ford with the French -fort (see p. 139). In this chapter will be found a summary of the various words applied by our ancestors to the natural features of the land they lived on. To avoid too lengthy a catalogue, I have classified them under the three headings (i) Hill and Dale, (2) Plain and Wood- 1 A good general account of our village names will be found in the Appendix to Isaac Taylor's Names and their Histories. It is reprinted as chapter xi of the same author's Words and Places (Everyman Library). See also Johnston's Place-names of England and Wales, a glossary of selected names with a comprehensive introduction. There are many modern books on the village names of various counties, e.g. Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Suffolk (Skeat), Oxfordshire (Alexander), Lancashire (Wyld and Hirst), West Riding of York- shire (Moorman), Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire (Duignan), Nottinghamshire (Mutschmann), Gloucestershire (Bad- deley), Herefordshire (Bannister), Wiltshire (Elsblom), S.W. York- shire (Goodall), Sussex (Roberts), Lancashire (Sephton), Derbyshire (Walker), Northumberland and Durham (Mawer). 104 SPOT NAMES land, (3) Water and Waterside, reserving for the next chapter the names due to man's interference with the scenery, e.g. roads, buildings, enclosures, etc. They are mostly Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian, the Celtic name remaining as the appellation of the individual hill, stream, etc. (Helvellyn, Avon, etc.). The simple word has in almost all cases given a fairly common surname, but compounds are of course numerous, the first element being descriptive of the second, e.g. Bradley, broad lea, Radley and Ridley, red lea, Brockley, brook lea or badger lea (p. 225), Beveney, beaver lea, Cleverley, clover lea, Eawley, hedge lea, Rawnsley, raven's lea, and so ad infinitum. In the oldest records spot names are generally preceded by the preposition at, whence such names as Attewell, Atwood, but other prepositions occur, as in Bythesea, Underwood and the hybrid Surtees, on Tees. Cf. such French names as Doutrepont, from beyond the bridge. One curious phenomenon, of which I can offer no explanation, is that while many spot names occur indifferently with or without -s, e.g. Bridge, Bridges ; Brook, Brooks ; Plait, Plaits, in others we find a regular preference either for the singular or plural * form. Compare the following couples : Field Meadows Lake Rivers Pool Hears (meres) Spring Wells House Coates (p. 133) Marsh Myers z (mires) 1 In some cases no doubt a plural, in others a kind of genitive due to the influence of personal names, such as Wills, Perkins, etc, 2 Myers is very often a Jewish name, from the very common Ger, M&yefj for which see p. 43. HILL AND DALE 105 to which many more might be added. So we find regularly Nokes but Nash (p. 34), Beech but Willows. The general tendency is certainly towards the -s forms in the case of monosyllables, e.g. Banks, Foulds, Hayes, StiMs, Thwaites, etc., but we naturally find the singular in compounds, e.g. Windebank (winding), Nettlefold, Roundhay, etc. There is also a further problem offered by names in -er. We know that a Waller was a mason or wall- builder, but was a Bridger really a Pontifex, 1 did he merely live near the bridge, or was he the same as a Bridgman, and what was the latter ? Did Sam Welter's ancestor sink wells, possess a well, or live near some- one else's well ? Probably all explanations may be correct, for the suffix may have differed in meaning according to locality, but I fancy that in most cases proximity alone is implied. The same applies to many cases of names in -man, such as Hittman, Dickman (dyke), Parkman. Many of the words in the following paragraphs are obsolete or survive only in local usage. Some of them also vary considerably in meaning, according to the region in which they are found. I have included many which, in their simple form, seem too obvious to need explanation, because the compounds are not always equally clear. HILL AND DALE We have a fair number of Celtic words connected with natural scenery, but they do not as a role form 1 An example of a Latinized name. Cf, Sufor, Fabe?, and the barbarous Sartonus, for sartor, a tailor. Pontifex may also be the latinized form of Pope or Bishop. It is not known why this title, bridge-builder, was given to high-priests. ro6 SPOT NAMES compounds, and as surnames are usually found in their simple form. Such are Cairn, a stony hill, Crag, Craig, and the related Carrick and Creagh, Glen or Glynn, and Lynn, a cascade. Two words, however, of Celtic origin, don, or down, a hill, and combe, a hollow in the hills, were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons and enter into many compounds. Thus we find Kingdon, whence the imitative Kingdom, Brandon, from the name Brand (p. 74), Ashdown, etc. The simple Donne or Dunne is sometimes the Anglo-Saxon name Dunna, whence Dunning, or a colour nickname, while Down and Downing may represent the Anglo- Sax. Duna and Duning (see p. 76). From Combe, used especially in the west of England, we have Campion, and such compounds as Acomb, at combe, Addiscombe, Battiscombe, etc. But Newcomb is for Newcome (p. 22). See also Slocomb (p. 207). The simple Hill and Dale are among our common surnames. Hill also appears as Hull and is easily disguised in compounds, e.g. Brummel for broom-hill, Tootell and Tuttle for Toothill, a name found in many localities and meaning a hill on which a watch was kept. It is connected with the verb to tout, originally to look out "David dwellide in the tote hil f * (Wye, 2 Sam. v. 9). We have Dale and its cognate Dell in Swindell (swine), Tindall (Tyne), Twaddell, Tweddell (Tweed), etc. " Mr. H. T. Twaddle announced the change of his name to Tweed- dale in the Times, January 4, 1890 " (Bardsley). Other names for a hill are Fell (Scand.), found in the lake country, whence Grenfell ; and Hough or How (Scand.), as in the north country names Greenhow, Birchenough. This is often reduced to -0, as in HILLS 107 Clitheroe, Shafto t and is easily confused with scough, a wood (Scand.), as in Briscoe (birch), Ayscough (ash). In the north hills were also called Law and Low, with such compounds as Bradlaugh, Whitelaw, and Harlow. To these must be added Barrow, often confused with the related borough (p. 12 1) . Both "belong to the Anglo- Sax, beorgan, to protect, cover. The name Leather- barrow means the hill, perhaps the burial mound, of Leather, Anglo-Sax. Hlothere, cognate with Lothair and Luther. A hill-top was Cope or Copp. Chaucer uses it of the tip of the Miller's nose "Upon the cope right of Ms nose he hade A werte, and thereon stood a toft of herys." (A. 554.) Another name for a hill-top appears in Peak, Pike, Peck, or Pick, but the many compounds in Pick-, e.g. Pickbourne, Pickford, Pickwick, etc., suggest a per- sonal name Pick of which we have the dim. in Pickett (cf. Fr. Picot) and the softened Piggot. Peak may be in some cases from the Derbyshire Peak, which has, however, no connection with the common noun peak. A mere hillock or knoll has given the names Knapp, Knollys or Knowles, Knock, and Knott. But Knapp may also be for Mid. Eng. en ape 9 cognate with knave and with Low Ger, Knappe, squire "Wer wagt es, Rittersmann oder Knapp 9 , Zu tauchen in diesen Schhmd ? " (ScMHer, Der Taucher, L i.) Redknap, the name of a Richmond boat-builder, Is probably a nickname, like Redhead. A Knapper may have lived on a " knap/' or may have been one of the Suffolk flint-knappers, who still prepare gun-flints for io8 SPOT NAMES weapons to be retailed to the heathen, Knock and Knocker are both Kentish names, and there is a reef off Margate known as the Kentish Knock. We have the plural Knox (cl Bax, p. 125). Knott is sometimes for Cnut, or Canute, which generally becomes Nutt. Both have got mixed with the nickname Nott. A green knoll was also called Toft (Scand.), whence Langtoft, and the name was used later for a homestead. From Cliff we have Clift, 1 with excrescent -t } and the cognates Cleeve and Clive. Compounds of Cliff are Radcliffe (red), Sutdiffe (south), Wyclif (white). The c- sometimes disappears in compounds, e.g. Cunliffe, earlier Cunde-clive, and Topliff ; but Ayliffe is for Mlfgiiu or uEthelgifu and Goodliffe from Godleof (cf. Ger. Gottlieb). The older form of Stone appears in Staines, Stanhope, Stanton, etc. Wheatstone is either for t( white stone " or for the local Whetstone (Middlesex). In Balderstone, Johnston, Edmondstone, Livingstone, the suffix is -ton, though the frequence of Johnston points to corruption from Johnson, just as in Not- tingham we have the converse case of Beeson from the local Beeston. In Hailstone the first element may be Mid. Eng. hali, holy. Another Mid, English name for a stone appears in Hone, now used only of a whetstone. A hollow or valley in the hillside was called in the north Clough, also spelt Clow, Cleugh (dim o' the Cleugh), and Clew. The compound Fair dough is found corrupted into Faircloth. Another obscure northern name for a glen was Hope, whence Allsop, Blenkinsop, the first element in each being perhaps the name of the first settler, and Burnup, Hartopp (hart), Harrap (hare), Heslop (hazel). Gill (Scand.), a ravine, * TMs may also be from Mid. Eng. clift, a cleft. WOODLAND AND PLAIN 109 has given Fofhergill, Pickersgill, and Gaskell, from Gaisgill (Westmorland). These, like most of our names connected with mountain scenery, are natur- ally found almost exclusively in the north. Other surnames which belong more or less to the hill country are Hole, found also as Holl, Hoole, and ffoyle, but perhaps meaning merely a depression in the land, Ridge, and its northern form Rigg, with their compounds Doddridge, Langridge, Brownrigg, Hazelrigg, etc. Ridge, Rigg, also appear as Rudge, Rugg. From Mid. Eng. raike, a path, a sheep-track (Scand.), we get Raikes and perhaps Creator e%, found earlier as Greatmkes, the name of a famous faith-healer of the seventeenth century. WOODLAND AND PLAIN The compounds of Wood itself are very numerous, e.g. Braidwood, Harwood, Norwood, Sherrard and Shermtt (Sherwood) . But, in considering the frequency of the simple Wood, it must be remembered that we find people described as le wode, i.e. mad (cf. Ger. Wut, frenzy), and that mad and madman are found as medieval names *' Thou, told'st me they were stolen unto this wood ; And here am I, and wode within this wood, Because I cannot meet my Hermia." (Midsummer Nighfs Dream , ii. i.) As a suffix -wood is sometimes a corruption of -ward, e.g. Haywood is occasionally for Hayward, and Allwood, Elwood are for Aylward, Anglo-Sax. xEthel- weard. Another name for a wood was Holt, cognate with Ger. Hoh no SPOT NAMES "But right so as thise holies and thise hayis, That han in winter dede ben and dreye, Revesten hem in grene whan that May is." (Troilus and Criseyde, iii. 351.) Hurst or Hirst means a wooded hill (ct Ger. Horst), and Shaw was once almost as common a word as wood itself " Wher rydestow under this grene-wode shawe ? " (D, 1386.) Hurst belongs especially to the south and west, though Hirst is very common in Yorkshire ; Shaw is found in the north and Holt in the east and south. We have compounds of Shaw in Bradshaw, Crashaw (crow), Hearnshaw (heron), Earnshaw (Mid. Eng. earn, eagle), Renshaw l (raven), etc., of Hurst in Buckhurst (beech), Brockhurst (badger), and of Holt in OakshotL We have earlier forms of Grow in Greaves "And with his stremes dryeth in the greves The silver dropes, hangynge on the leves" (A. 1495) and Graves, the latter being thus no more funereal than Tombs, from Thomas (cf. Timbs from Timothy). But Greaves and Graves may also be variants of the official Grieves (p. 181), or may come from Mid. Eng. grafe, a trench, quarry. Compounds are Hargreave (hare), Redgrave, Stangrave, the two latter probably referring to an excavation. From Mid. Eng. strode, a small wood, appear to come Strode and Stroud, compound Bulstrode, while Struthers is the cognate strother } marsh, still in dialect use. Weald and wold, the cognates of Ger. Wald, were applied rather to wild country in general than to land covered with trees. They are 1 It is obvious that this may also "be for raven's haw (p. 124). Raw en was a common personal name and is the first element in Ramsboitom (p. 114), Ramsden. FOREST CLEARINGS in probably connected with wild. Similarly the Late Lat. foresta, whence our forest, means only what is outside, Lat. foris, the town jurisdiction. From the Mid. Eng. wa&A we have the names Weld and Weale, the latter with the not uncommon loss of final ~d, Scroggs (Scand.) and Scrubbs suggest their meaning of brushwood. Scroggins, from its form, is a patro- nymic, and probably represents Scoggins with intru- sive -r-. This is perhaps from Scogin, a name borne by a poet who was contemporary with Chaucer and by a court-fool of the fifteenth century " The same Sir John, the very same. I saw Mm break Slogan's head at the court gate, when he was a crack, not thus high/' (2 Henry I V., iii. 2,) With Scrubb of cloudy ammonia fame we may compare Wormwood Scrubbs. Shrubb is the same word, and Shropshire is for Anglo-Sax, scrob-scire. The two northern names for a clearing in the wood were Royd and Thwaite (Scand.). The former is cognate with the second part of "B&ireut and Wemige- rode, and with the Riitli, the small plateau on which the Swiss patriots took their famous oath. It was so called "Weil dort die Waldung ausgerodet ward. 1 * (SCHILLER, Wilhelm Tell) Among its compounds are Ackroyd (oak), Grindrod (green), Murgatroyd (Margaret), Learoyd (lea), Ormerod, etc. We also find the name Rodd, which may belong here or to Rudd (p. 74), and both these names may also be for Rood, equivalent to Cross or Crouch (p. 17), as in Holyrood. Ridding is also related to Royd. Hacking may be a dim. of Hack (p. 74), but we find also de le hacking, which suggests a forest clearing. Thwaite, H2 SPOT NAMES from Anglo-Sax. ]>witan, to cut, is found chiefly in Cumberland and the adjacent region in such com- pounds as Braithwaite (broad), Hebbelthwaite, Postle- thwaite, Satterthwaite. The second of these is some- times corrupted into Ablewhite as Cowperthwaite is into Copperwheat, for " this suffix has ever been too big a mouthful in the south" (Bardsley). A glade or valley in the wood was called a Dean, Dene, Denne, cognate with den. The compounds are numerous, e.g. Borden (boar), Dibden (deep), Sugden (Mid. Eng. suge, sow), Hazeldean or Heseltine. From the fact that swine were pastured in these glades the names Denman and Denyer have been explained as equivalent to swineherd. As a suffix -den is often con- fused with -don (p. 106) . At the foot of Horsenden Hill, near Harrow, two boards announce Horsenicw Farm and Horsen^m Golf-links. An opening in the wood was also called Slade "And when he came to Barnesdale, Great heavinesse there hee hadd ; He lound two of his fellowes Were slaine both in a si ads." (Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne.) The maps still show Pond Slade in Richmond Park, The compound Hertslet may be for hart-slade. Acre, a field, cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. ager, occurs in Goodacre, Hardacre, Linacre, Whittaker, etc., and Field itself gives numerous compounds, in- cluding Butter-field (bittern, p. 220), Scho field (school), Streatfeild (street), Whit field. Pasture- land is repre- sented above all by Lea, for which see p. 28. It is cognate with Hohen/0& and Waterloo, while Mead and Medd are cognate with Zermatt (at the mead), Brinsmead thus means the same as Brinsley. MARSHES 113 Marshy land has given the names Can or Kerr (Scand.) and Marsh, originally an adjective, merisc, from mer, mere. The doublet Harris has usually become Morris* The compounds Tidmarsh and Titchmarsh contain the Anglo-Saxon names Tidda and Ticca. Moor also originally had the meaning morass (e.g. in Sedgemoor), as Ger. Moor still has, so that Fenimore is pleonastic. The northern form is Muir, as in Muirhead. Moss was similarly used in the north ; cl moss-trooper and Solway Moss, but the surname Moss is generally for Moses (p. 85). From slough we get the names Slow, Slowley, and Sloman (also perhaps a nickname), with which we may compare Moorman and Mossman* This seems to be also the most usual meaning of Slack or Slagg, also used of a gap in the hills "The first horse that he rode upon, For he was raven black, He bore him far, and very far, But failed in a slack." (Ballad of Lady Maisry.} Tye means common land. Plait is a piece, or plot, of level country "Oft on a plat of rising ground I hear the far-off curfew sound'* (Penseroso, 1. 73) ; and shape is expressed by Gore, a triangular piece of land (cf. Kensington Gore), of which the older form Gar e, Geare, also survives. In Lowndes we have laund or lound "And to the laund he rideth. hym ful right, For thider was the hart wont have his flight" (A. 1691) a piece of heath land, the origin of the modern word lawn. In Lund and Lunn it has become confused 9 U4 SPOT NAMES with the Old Norse lundr, a sacred grove. Laund Itself is of French origin " Lande, a land, or taund; a wild, untilled, shrufobie, or bushie plaine " (Cotgrave). Its relation to land is uncertain, and it is not possible to distinguish them in such compounds as A eland (p. 118), Buckland, Cleveland, etc. The name Lander or Launder is unconnected with these (see p. 186). Flack is Mid. Eng. flagge, turf. Snape is a dialect word for boggy ground, and Wong means a meadow. A rather uncouth-looking set of names, which occur chiefly on the border of Cheshire and Lancashire, are compounded from bottom or botham, a wide shallow valley suited for agriculture. Hotspur, dis- satisfied with his fellow-conspirators' map-drawing, expresses his intention of damming the Trent so that " It shall not wind with such a deep indent To rob me of so rich a bottom here." (i Henry IV. iii. i.) Familiar compounds are Higginbottom, Rowbotham, Sidebottom. The first element of Shuiflebotham is, in the Lancashire Assize Rolls (1176-1285), spelt Schyppewalle- and Schyppewelle-, where schyppe is for sheep, still so pronounced in dialect. Tarbottom, earlier Tarbutton, is corrupted from Tarbolton (Ayrshire). WATER AND WATERSIDE Very few surnames are taken, in any language, from the names of rivers. This is quite natural, for just as the man who lived on a hill became known as Hill, Peake, etc,, and not as Skiddaw or Wrekin, so the RIVERS 115 man who lived by the waterside would be known as Bywater, Rivers, etc. No Londoner talks of going on the Thames, and the country-dweller also usually refers to his local stream as the river or the water, and not by its geographical name. Another reason for the absence of such surnames is probably to be found in the fact that our river (and mountain) names are almost exclusively Celtic, and had no connotation for the English population. We have many apparent river names, but most of them are susceptible of another explanation. Dee may be for Day as Deakin is for Dakin, i.e. David, Derwent looks like Darwin (p. 73) or the local Darwen with excrescent 4 (p. 41), Humber is Humbert, a French name corresponding to the Anglo- Sax. Hunbeorht, Medway may be merely " mid- way/' and Trent is a place in Somerset. This view as to river surnames 1 is supported by the fact that we do not appear to have a single mountain surname, the apparent exception, Snowdon, being for Snowden (see den, p. 112). Among names for streams we have Beck* cognate with Ger. Bach ; Bourne? or Burn, cognate with Gen Brunnen ; Brook, related to break ; Crick, a creek ; Fleet, a creek, cognate with Flood ; and Syke, a trench or rill In Beckett and Brockett the suffix is head (p. 126). TroMtbeck, Birkbeck explain themselves. In Colbeck we have cold, and Holbrook contains hollow, but in some names -brook has been substituted for -borough, -burgh. We find Brook latinized as Torrens. Aborn is for atte bourne, and there are probably many 1 But see my Sufnames, p. 161. 2 The simple Beck is generally a German name of modern intro- duction (p. 149)- a Distinct from bourw, a boundary, Fr borne. n6 SPOT NAMES places called Blackburn and Otterburn. Firth, an estuary, cognate with fjord, often becomes Frith, but this surname usually comes from frith, a park or game preserve (p. 124). Another word for a creek, wich or wick (Scand.), cannot be distinguished from wick, a settlement. Pond, a doublet of Pound (p. 135), means a piece of water enclosed by a dam, while natural sheets of water are Lake, or Lack, not limited originally to a large expanse, Mere, whence Hears and such compounds as Cranmer (crane), Bulmer (bull), etc., and Pool, also spelt Putt and Pole. We have compounds of the latter in Poulton (p. 4), Claypole, and GlasspooL In Kent a small pond is called Sole, whence Nether- sole. The bank of a river or lake was called Over, cognate with Ger. Ufer, whence Overend, Overall (see below), Overbury, Overland. The surname Shore, for atte shore, may refer to the sea-shore, but the word sewer was once regularly so pronounced and the name was applied to large drains in the fen country (cf. Gott, p. 129). Beach is a word of late appear- ance and doubtful origin, and as a surname is usually identical with Beech. Spits of land by the waterside were called Hook (cf. Hook of Holland and Sandy Hook) and Hoe or Hoo, as in Plymouth Hoe, or the Hundred of Hoo, between the Thames and the Medway. From Hook comes Hooker, where it does not mean a maker of hooks, while Homan and Hooman sometimes belong to the second. Alluvial land by a stream was called halgh, haugh, whence sometimes Hawes. Its dative case gives Hale and Heal. These often become -hatt, -all, in place-names. Compounds are Greenhalgh, Greenatt, and Feaiherstonehaugh, perhaps our longest surname. ISLANDS 117 Ing, a low-lying meadow, Mid. Eng. eng, survives in Greening, Penning, Wilding, and probably sometimes in England (p. 98). But Inge and Ings, the latter the name of one of the Cato Street conspirators, also represent an Anglo-Saxon personal name. Cf. Ingall and Ingle, from Ingwulf , or Ingold, whence Ingoldsby. Ey> 1 an island, survives as the last element of many names, and is not always to be distinguished from hey (hay, p. 124) and ley. Bill Nye's ancestor lived alien ey (p. 34). Dowdney or Dudeney has been explained from the Anglo-Saxon name Duda, but it more probably re- presents the very common French name Dieudonne, corresponding to Lat. Deodatus. In the north a river island was commonly called Holm (Scand.) ? also pro- nounced Home, Hulme, and Hume, in compounds easily confused with -ham, e.g. Durham was once Dun-holmr, hill island. The very common Holmes is probably in most cases a tree-name (p. 118). In Chisholm the first element may mean pebble ; cf. Chesil Beach. The names Bent, whence Broadbent, and Crook probably also belong sometimes to the river, but may have arisen from a turn in a road or valley. But Bent was also applied to a tract covered with bents, or rushes, and Crook is generally a nickname (p. 211). Lastly, the crossing of the unbridged stream has given us Ford or Forth, whence Stratford, Sir afford (street), Stanford, Stamford, Staniforth (stone), etc. The alternative name was Wade, whence the compound Grimwade. The cognate wath (Scand.) has been confused with with (Scand.), a wood, whence the name Wythe and the compound Askwith or A$quith. Both -wath and -with have been often replaced by -worth and -wood, i Isle of Shepp*y, MersM Island, etc,, are pleonasms. ii8 SPOT NAMES TREE NAMES In conclusion a few words must be said about tree names, so common in their simple form and in topo- graphical compounds. Here, as in the case of most of the etymons already mentioned in this chapter, the origin of the surname may be specific as well as general, i.e. the name Ash may come from Ash in Kent rather than from any particular tree, the etymo- logy remaining the same. Many of our surnames have preserved the older forms of tree names, e.g. the lime was once the line, hence Lines, Lynes, and earlier still the Lind, as in the compounds Lyndhurst, Lindley, etc. The older form of Oak appears in Acland, Acton, and variants in Ogden and Braddock, broad oak. We hav.e ash in Aston, Ascham. The holly was once the hollin, whence Hollins, Hollis, Soilings ; cf . Hollings- head, Holinshed. But hollin became colloquially holm, whence generally Holmes. Homewood is for holm- wood. The holm oak, ilex, is so called from its holly-like leaves. For Birch we also find Birk, a northern form. Beech often appears in compounds as Buck- ; cf . buckwheat, so called because the grains are of the shape of beech-mast. In Poppleton, Popplewell we have the dialect popple, a poplar. Yeo * sometimes represents yew, spelt yowe by Palsgrave. In Sallows we have a provincial name for the willow, cognate with Fr. mule and Lat. $alix. Rowntree is the rowan, or mountain ash, and Bawtry or Bawtree is a northern name for the elder. The older forms of Alder and Elder, in both of which the -d- is intrusive (p. 34), * The yeo of yeoman, which is conjectured to have meant district, cognate with Ger. Gau in Breisgau, Rheingau, etc., is aot found by itself. TREES 119 appear in Aileron and Ellcrshaw. Maple is sometimes M apple and sycamore Is corrupted into Sicklemore. Tree-names are common In all languages. Beerbohm Tree Is pleonastic, from Ger. Bierbaum, for Birribaum, pear-tree. A few years ago a prominent Belgian statesman bore the name Vandenpereboom, rather terrifying till decomposed into "van den pereboom/ 1 Its Mid. English equivalent appears in Pine, origin- ally a collection of pear-trees, but used by Chaucer for the single tree " And thus I lete hym sitte upon the pyrie." (E, 2217.) From trees we may descend gradually, via Thome, Bush, Furze, Gorst (p. 10), Ling, etc., until we come finally to Grace, which in some cases represents grass, for we find William atte grase in 1327, while the name Poorgrass, in Mr. Hardy's Far from the Madding Crowd, seems to be certified by the famous French names Malherbe and Malesherbes. But Savory is the French personal name Savary. The following list of trees is given by Chaucer In the Knight's tale " The names that the trees highte, As ook, firre, birch, aspe, alder, holm, popeler 3 Wylugh, elm, plane, assh, box, chasteyn, lynde, laurer, Mapul, thorn, bech, hasei, ew, whippeltre." (A. 2920.) They are all represented in modem directories. CHAPTER XIII THE HAUNTS OF MAN ** One fels downe firs, another of the same With crossed poles a little lodge doth frame i Another mounds it with dry wall about, And leaves a breach for passage in and out : With turfe and furze some others yet more grose Their homely sties in stead of walls inclose : Some, like the swallow, mud and hay doe mixe And that about their silly [p. 209] cotes they fixe : Some heale [thatch] their roofes with fearn, or reeds, or rushes, And some with hides, with oase, with boughs, and bushes/* (SYLVESTER, The Dcvim Weekes.) IN almost every case where man has Interfered with nature the resulting local name is naturally of Anglo- Saxon or, in some parts of England, of Scandinavian origin. The Roman and French elements in our topo- graphical names are scanty in number, though the former are of frequent occurrence. The chief Latin contributions axe -Chester, -cester, -caster, Lat. castrum, a fort, or plural castra, a camp ; -street, Lat, ma strata, a levelled way; -minster, Lat, monasterium; and -church or -kirk, Greco-Lat, kuriakon, belonging to the Lord. Eccles, Greco-Lat, ecclesia, probably goes back to Celtic Christianity. Street was the high-road, hence Greenstreet. Minster Is curiously corrupted in Buckmaster for Buck- minster and Kittermaster for Kidderminster, while in its simple form it appears as Minister (p. 35). We have a few French place-names, e.g. Beamish (p. 139), Beau- SETTLEMENTS 121 mont, Richmond, Riclusmont, and Malpas (Cheshire) , the evil pass, with which we may compare Maltravers. We have the apparent opposite in Bompas, Burnpus, FT. ban pas, but this was a nickname. Of late there has been a tendency to introduce the French mile, e.g. Bournville, near Birmingham. That part of Mar- gate which ought to be called Northdown is known as Cliftonville, and the inhabitants of the opposite end of the town, dissatisfied with such good names as Westbrook and Rancorn, hanker after Westonville. But these philological atrocities axe fortunately too late to be perpetuated as surnames, I have divided the names hi this chapter into those that are connected with (i) Settlements and Enclosures, (a) Highways and Byways, (3) Watercourses, (4) Buildings, (5) Shop Signs. And here, as before, names which neither in their simple nor compound form present any difficulty are omitted. SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES The words which occur most commonly in the names of the modern towns which have sprung from early homesteads are borough or bury, 1 by, ham, stoke, stow, thorp, tun or ton, wick, and worth. These names are all of native origin, except by, which indicates a Danish settlement, and wick, which is supposed to be a very early loan from Lat. vicus, cognate with Greek olfcos* house. Nearly all of them are common, in their simple form, both as specific place-names and as surnames. Borough, cog- nate with Ger, Burg, castle, and related to Barrow (p. 107), has many variants, Bury, Brough f Borrow, Berry, whence Berryman, and Burgh, the last of which 1 Originally the dative ol borough. 122 THE HAUNTS OF MAN has become Burke In Ireland. In Atterbury the pre- position and article have both remained, while in Thornber the suffix is almost unrecognizable. By, related to byre and to the preposition by, is especially common in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. It is some- times spelt bee, e.g. Ashbee for Ashby. The simple Bye is not uncommon. Ham is cognate with home. In compounds it is sometimes reduced to -um t e.g. Barnum, Holtum, Warnum. But in some such names the -urn is the original form, representing an old da- tive plural (p. 39). Attum represents the usual Midland pronunciation of Hallam. Cullum, generally for Cul- ham, may also represent the missionary Saint Colomb. In Newnham the adjective is dative, as in Ger. Neuen- heim, at the new home. In Bonham, Frankham, and Pridham the suffix -ham has been substituted for the French homme of bonhomme, franc homme, prudhomme, while Jerningham is a perversion of the personal name Jernegan or Gernegan, as Garnham is of Gernon, Old French for Beard (see p. 200) . Stead is cognate with Ger. Stadt, place, town, and with staith, as in Bicker steth (p. 40) . Armstead means the dwelling of the hermit, Bensted the stead of Benna (p. 75) or Bennet. Stoke is originally distinct from Stock, a stump, with which it has become fused in the compounds Bostock, Brigstocke. Stow appears in the compound Bristol (p. 99) and in Plaistow, play-ground (cf. Play- sted). Thorp, cognate with Ger. Dor/, village, is especially common in the eastern counties "By twenty thorps, a little town, And half a hundred bridges." (Tennyson, The Brook, I. 5.) It has also given Thrupp and probably Thripp, whence , Winthrop, Westrupp, etc. Ton, later Town, SETTLEMENTS 123 gave also the northern Toon, still used in Scotland with something of its original sense (see p. 102), Boston is Botolf s town, Gunston Giinolf s town. So also Tarleton (Thur weald) , M on kton (monk), Preston (priest). Barton meant originally a barley-field, and is still used in the west of England for a paddock. Wick appears also as Wych, Weech. Its compounds cannot be separated from those of wick, a creek (p. 116). Bromage is for Broniwich, Greenidge for Greenwich, Prestage for Prestwich ; cf, the place-name Swanage (Dorset) > earlier Swanewic. Worth was perhaps originally applied to land by a river or to a holm (p. 117) ; cf. Ger. Donauwert, Nonnenwert, etc. Harmsworth is for Harmondsworth ; cf. Ellsworth (Ebba), Shuttleworth (Sceotweald), Wads- worth (Wada). Sometimes we find a lengthened form, e.g. Allworthy, from aid, old (cf. Aldworth) y Langworthy. Rickworth, further corrupted to Record, is the Anglo- Saxon name Ricweard. Littleworth may belong to this class, but may also be a nickname. This would make it equivalent to the imitative Little- proud, formerly Littleprow, from Old French and Mid. Eng. prou, worth, value* To this group may be added two more, which signify a mart, viz. Cheap or Chipp (cf , Chepstow, Chip- ping Barnet) and Staple, whence HuxtaUe, Stapleton, etc. Liberty, that part of a city which, though outside the walls, shares in the city privileges, and Parish also occur as surnames, but the latter is usually for Paris. Many other words connected with the delimitation of property occur commonly in surnames. Croft or Craft, a small .field, is common in compounds such as Belewft or Bearcroft (barley), Hay craft (see hay, p. 124), 124 THE HAUNTS OF MAN Oscr oft (ox) , -Meadowcroft, l Ry croft. Fold occurs usually as Foulds, but we have compounds such as Nettlefold, Pen/old or Pinfold (p. 135). Sty, not originally limited to pigs, has given Hardisty, the sty of Heardwulf. Frith, "a park or game preserve, is probably more often the origin of a surname than the other frith (p. 116). It is cognate with Ger. Friedhoi, cemetery. Chase is still used of a park and Game once meant rabbit-warren. Warren is Fr. garenne. Garth l the Scandinavian doublet of Yard, and cognate with Garden, has given the compounds Garside, Garfield, Hogarth (from a place in Westmorland), and Apple- garth, of which Applegate is a corruption. We have a compound of yard in Wynyard, Anglo-Sax, win, vine. We have . also the name Close and its deriva- tive dowser. Gate, a barrier or opening, Anglo-Sax. geat, is distinct from the Scandinavian gate, a street (p. 128), though of course confused with it in surnames. From the northern form we have Yates, Yeats, and Yeatman, and the compounds Byatt, by gate, Hyatt, high gate. Agate is for atte gate, and Lidgate, whence Lidgett, means a swing gate, shutting like a lid. Flad- gate is for flood-gate. Here also belongs Barr. Hatch, the gate at the entrance to a chase, survives in Colney Hatch. The apparent dim. Hatchett is for Hatchard (p. 81) ; cf. Everett for Everard (p. 17). Hay, also Haig, Haigh, Haw, Hey, is cognate with Hedge, Like most monosyllabic local surnames, it is commonly found in the plural, Hayes, Hawes. The bird nick- name Hedgecock exists also as Haycock. The curious- 1 I remember reading in some story of a socially ambitious lady who adopted this commonplace name instead of Gubbins. The latter name came over, as Gobin, with the Conqueror, and goes back to Old Ger. Godberaht, whence Old Fr. Godibert. SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES 125 looking patronymics Townson and Otchardson are of course corrupt. The former is for Tomlimon and the latter perhaps from Achard (p. 81). Several places and families in England are named Hide or Hyde, which meant a certain measure of land. The popular connection between this word and hide, a skin, as in the story of the first Jutish settlement, is a fable. It is connected with an Anglo-Saxon word meaning household, which appears also in Huish, Anglo- Sax, hi-wisc. Dike, or Dyke, and Moat, also Mott, both have, or had, a double meaning. We still use dike, which belongs to dig and ditch, both of a trench and a mound, and the latter was the earlier meaning of Fr. mofte, now a clod. In Anglo-French we find moat used of a mound fortress in a marsh. Now it is applied to -the surrounding water. From dike come the names Dicker, Dickman, Grimsdick, etc. Sometimes the name Dykes may imply residence near some historic earth- work, such as Offa's Dyke, just as Watt, for which Waitgh was used in the north, may show connection with the Roman wall With these may be mentioned the French name Fosse, whence the apparently pleo- nastic Fosdyke and the name of Verdant Green's friend, Mr. Four-in-hand Fosbrooke. Delves is from Mid. Eng. delf, ditch. Jury is for Jewry, the quarter allotted to the Jews, but Jewsbury is no doubt for Dewsbury ; cl Jewhurst for Dewhurst. Here may be mentioned a few local surnames which are hard to classify. We have the apparently anatomical Back, Foot, Head, and, in compounds, -side. Back seems to have been used of the region behind a building or dwelling, as it still is at Cambridge. Its plural has given Box. But it was also a personal name connected with Bacon (p. 222). We should expect 126 THE HAUNTS OF MEN Foot to mean the base of a hill, but it always occurs in early rolls without a preposition. It may repre- sent in some cases an old personal name of obscure origin, but it is also a nickname with compounds such as Barfoot, Lightfoot. The simple Head, found as Mid. Eng. del heved, is perhaps generally from a shop sign. Fr. Tete, one origin of Tail, Tate, and Ger. Haupt, Kopf, also occur as surnames. As a local suffix -head appears to mean top-end and is generally shortened to -ett, e.g. Birkett 1 (cf. Birkenhead), BrockeM (brook), Bromet, Bromhead (broom), Hazlitt (hazel). The same suffix appears to be present in Fossett, from fosse, and Forcett from force, a waterfall (Scand.). Broadhead is a nickname, like Fr. Gros- setete and Ger. Breitkopf. The face-value of Evershed is boar's head. Morshead may be the nickname of mine host of the Saracen's Head or may mean the end of the moor. So the names Aked (oak), Blackett, Woodhead may be explained anatomically or geo- graphically according to the choice of the bearer. Perrett, usually a dim. of Peter, may sometimes repre- sent the rather effective old nickname " pear-head/' Side is local in the uncomfortable sounding Akenside (oak), Fearenside (fern), but Heaviside appears to be a nickname. Handy side may mean " gracious manner/' from Mid. Eng. side, cognate with Gen Sine, custom. See Hendy (p. 211). The simple end survives as Ind or Nind (p. 34) and in Over end (p. 116), Townsend. Edge appears also in the older form Egg, but the frequency of place-names beginning with Edge, e.g. Edgeley, Edgington, Edgworth, etc., suggests that it was also a personal name. 1 No doubt sometimes, like Burchett, Buckelt, for tlie personal name Burchard, Anglo-Sax. Burgheard, HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS 127 Lynch, a boundary, is cognate with goli-links. The following sounds modern, "but refers to people sitting in a hollow among the sand-ridges " And are ye in tlie wont of drawing up wi' a' the gangrel bodies that ye find cowering in a sand-few nker upon the links ? " (Redgauntlet, CL xi.) Pitt is found in the compound Bulpiit, no doubt the place where the town bull was kept. It is also the origin of the Kentish names Pett and Pettman (p. 164, n. i). Arch refers generally to a bridge. Lastly, there are three words for a corner, viz. Hearne, Herne, Hume, Horn ; Wyke> the same word as Wick, a creek (p. 116) ; and Wray (Scand.). The franklin tell us that " jronge clerkes " desirous of knowledge "Seken in every halke and every Jieyne Particular sciences for to lerne " (F 5 1119). Wray has become confused with Ray (p. 29), Its compound thack-wray, the corner where the thatch was stored, has given Thackeray. HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS The word road, was not used in its current sense during the surname period, but meant the art of riding, and specifically a raid or inroad. Therefore the name Roades is unconnected with it and represents merely a variant of Rqyds (p. HI). This name and its compounds belong essentially to the north, the prevailing spelling, Rhodes, being artificial. It has no connection with the island of Rhodes. The meaning of Street has changed considerably since the days when Icknield Street and Watling Street were great national 128 THE HAUNTS OF MAN roads. It is now used exclusively of town thorough- fares, and has become such a mere suffix that, while we speak of the Oxford Road, we try to suppress the second word in Oxford Street. To street belong our place-names and surnames in Sir at-, Stret- } etc., e.g. Stratton, Stretton, Stredwick. Way has a number of compounds with intrusive -a-, e.g. Chattaway, Dallaway (dale), Greenaway, Hathaway (heath), Westaway. But Hanway is the name of a country (see p. 100), and Otway, Ottoway, is Old Fr. Otouet, a dim. of Odo. Shipway is for sheep-way. In the north of England the streets in a town are often called gates (Scand.). It is impossible to distinguish the compounds of this gate from those of the native gate, a barrier (p. 124), e.g. Norgate may mean North Street or North Gate. Alley and Court both exist as surnames, but the former is for a 1 lee, i.e. Atlee (see p. 104), and the latter is from court in the sense of mansion, country house. The curious spelling Caught may be seen over a shop in Chiswick. Rowe (p. 8) sometimes means row of houses, but in Townroe the second element is identical with Wray (p. 127). Cosway, Cossey, is from causeway, Fr. chaussee ; and Twitchen, Twitchell repre- sent dialect words used of a narrow passage and con- nected with the Mid. English verb twiselen, to fork, or divide ; Twiss must be of similar origin, for we find Robert del twysse in 1367. Cf. Birtwistle and Entwistle. With the above may be classed the west-country Shute, a narrow street ; Vennell, a north-country word for alley, Fr. venelle, dim. of Lat. vena, vein ; Wynd, a court, also a north-country word, probably from the verb wind, to twist ; and the cognate Went, a passage Thorugh a goter, by a prive Cnseyde, Hi. BUILDINGS 129 WATER Names derived from artificial watercourses are Channell, now replaced as a common noun by the learned form canal; Condy or Gundy, for the earlier Cunditt, conduit; Gott, cognate with gut, used in Yorkshire for the channel from a mill-dam, and in Lincolnshire for a water-drain on the coast ; Lade, Leete, connected with the verb to lead ; and some- times Shore (p. 116), which was my grandfather's pronunciation of sewer. From weir, lit. a protection, precaution, cognate with "beware and Ger. wehren, to protect, we have not only Weir, but also Ware, Warr, Wear, and the more pretentious Delawarr. The latter name passed from an Earl Delawarr to a region in North America, and thus to Fenimore Cooper's noble red men. But this group of names must sometimes be referred to the Domesday wara, an outlying potion of a manor. Lock is more often a land name, to be classed with Hatch (p. 124), but was also used of a water-gate. Key was once the usual spelling of quay. The curious name Keylock is a per- version of Kellogg, Mid. Eng. Kill-hog. Port seldom belongs here, as the Mid. English is almost always de la porte, i.e. Gates. From well we have a very large number of compounds, e.g. Cauldwell (cold), Halliwell, the variants of which, Hottiwett, Hollowett, probably all represent Mid. Eng. kali, holy. Here belongs also Winch, from the device used for drawing water from deep wells. BUILDINGS The greater number of the words to be dealt with under this heading enter into the composition of specific place-names, A considerable number of sur- 10 130 THE HAUNTS OF MAN names are derived from the names of religious build- ings, usually from proximity rather than actual habitation. Such names are naturally of Greco-Latin origin, and were either introduced directly into Anglo- Saxon by the missionaries, or were adopted later in a French form after the Conquest, It has already been noted (p. 5) that Abbey is not always what it seems; but in some cases it is local, from Fr. abbaye, of which the Provencal form Abadie was introduced by the Huguenots. We find much earlier A My, taken straight from the Greco-Lat. abbatia. The famous name Chantrey is for chantry, Ar milage was once the regular pronunciation of Hermitage, and Chappell a common spelling of Chapel " Also if you finde not the word you seeke for presently after one sort of spelling, condemne me not forthwith., but consider how it is used to be spelled, whether with double or single letters, as Chappell, or Chapett" (Holyoak, Latin Diet., 1612). We have also the Norman form Capel, but this may be a nickname from Mid. Eng. capel, nag "Why nadstow (hast thou not) pit the capul in the lathe (barn) ? " (A, 4088.) A Galilee was a chapel or porch devoted to special purposes " Those they pursued had taken refuge in the galilee of the church " (Fair Maid of Perth, ch. ix.). The tomb of the Venerable Bede is in the Galilee of Durham Cathedral. I had a schoolfellow with this uncommon name, now generally perverted to Galley. In a play now running (Feb. 1913) in London, there is a character named Sanctuary, a name found also in Crockford and the London Directory, I have only BUILDINGS 131 once come across the contracted form Sentry * (Daily Telegraph, Dec, 26, 1912), and then under circumstances which might make quotation actionable. Purvis is Mid. Eng. parvis, a porch, Greco-Lat. faradisus. It may be the same as Provis, the name selected by Mr. Magwitch on his return from the Antipodes (Great Expectations, ch. xl.), unless this is for Frowst. Porch and Portch both occur as surnames, but Porcher is Fr. porcher, a swineherd, and Portal is a Huguenot name. Churcher and Kirker, Churchman and Kirk" man, are usually local ; cf . Bridge? and Bridgman. The names Temple and Templeman were acquired from residence near one of the preceptories of the Knights Templars, and Spittlehoitse (p. 34) is some- times to be accounted for in a similar way (Knights of the Hospital). We even find the surname Taber- nacle. Masters is Old Fr, moustiers (moutiers], common in French place-names, from Lat. mowsteriim. The word low, still used for an arch in some old towns, has given the names Bow and Bowes. A medieval statute, recently revived to baffle the suffragettes, was originally directed against robbers and " pillars/' i.e. plunderers, but the name Filler is also for pillar ; cf . the French name Colonne. With these may be mentioned Buttress and Carnett, the latter from OH Fr camel (cyeneau), a battlement. As general terms for larger dwellings we find Hall, House, also written Hose, and Seal, the last-named from the Teutonic original which has given Fr* Lasalle, whence our surname Sale. To the same class belong Place, Plaice, as in Cumnor Place. The i On the development in meaning of this word, first occurring in the phrase " to take sentrte" i.e. refuge, see my Romance of Words, ch. vii. 132 THE HAUNTS OF MAN possession of such surnames does not Imply ancestral possession of Haddon Hall, Stafford House, etc., but merely that the founder of the family lived under the shadow of greatness. In compounds -house is generally treated as in "workus," e.g. Bacchus (p. 83), Bellows, Brewis, Duffm (dove), Kirkus, Loftus, Malthm, Windus (wynd, p. 128). In connection with Woodhouse it must be remembered that this name was given to the man who played the part of a " wild man of the woods " in processions and festivities. William Power, skinner, called "Wode- hous," died in London in 1391. Of similar origin is Greenman. The tavern sign of the Green Man is some- times explained as representing a forester in green, but it was probably at first equivalent to the German sign " Zum wilden Mann/' C as sett is sometimes for Castle, but is more often a local German name of recent introduction. The northern Peel, a castle, as in the Isle of Man, was originally applied to a stockade, Old Fr. pel (pieu), a stake, Lat. palus. Hence also Peatt, Peile. Keep comes from the central tower of the castle, where the baron and his family kept, i.e. lived. A moated Grange is a poetic figment, for the word comes from Fr. grange, a barn (to Lat. gmnum) ; hence Granger. With Mill and the older Milne (p. 25) we may compare Muttins, Fr. Desmoulins. Barnes is some- times, but not always, what it seems (see p. 194). With it we may put Leathes, from an obsolete Scandina- vian word for barn (see quot. p. 130), to which we owe also the names Leatham and Latham. Mr. Oldbuck's *' ecstatic description n of the Roman camp with its praetorium was spoilt by Edie Ochiltree's disastrous Interruption DWELLINGS 133 " Prsetorian here, praetorian there, I mind the bigging o*t. $J (Antiquary* ch* iv.). The obsolete verb to big, i.e. build, whence Biggar, a builder, has given us Biggins, Biggs (p. 38), and Newbigging, while from to build we have Newbould and Newlott. Cazenove, Itai casa nuova, means ex- actly the same. Probably related to build Is the obsolete Bottle, a building, whence Harbottle. A humble dwelling was called a Board 44 Bwde t a little house, lodging, or cottage of timber " (Cotgmve) whence Boardman, Border. Other names were Booth, Lodge, and Policy, FT. feuilUe, a hut made of branches " Feuill6e t an axbor, or bower, framed of leav'd plants, or branches" (Cotgrave). Scale, possibly connected with shealing, is a Scandi- navian word used in the north for a shepherd's hut, hence the surname Scales. Bower, which now suggests a leafy arbour, had no such sense in Mid. English. Chaucer says of the poor widow "Fill sooty was hir lour and eek hire halle." (B, 4022.) Hence the names Bowerman, Doorman, Bufman, But the commonest of names for a humble dwelling was cot or cote "Born and fed in nidenesse As in a cote oj: in an o%e stalie " (E, 397) the Inhabitant of which was a Cotman, Cotter, or, diminutively, Cottrell, Cotterill Hence the frequent occurrence of the name Coates* There are also numer* ous compounds, e.g. Akott (old), NorcoU, Kingscole, 134 THE HAUNTS OF MAN and the many variants of CaidecoU, Calcott, the cold dwelling, especially common as a village name in the vicinity of the Roman roads. It is supposed to have been applied, like Coldharbour, to deserted posts. The name Cotton is sometimes from the dative plural of the same word, though, when of French origin, it represents Colon, dim. of Cot, aphetic for Jacot. Names such as Kitchin, S pence, a north-country word for pantry (see p. 186), and Mews, originally applied to the hawk-coops (see Hewer, p. 150), point to domestic employment. The simple Mew, common in Hampshire, is a bird nickname. Scammell preserves an older form of shamble(s), originally the benches on which meat was exposed for sale. The name Currie, or Curry t is too common to be .referred entirely to the Scot. Corrie, a mountain glen, or to Curry in Somerset, and I conjecture that it sometimes represents Old French and Mid. Eng. curie, a kitchen, which is the origin of Petty Cury in Cambridge and of the famous French name Curie. Nor can Furness be derived exclusively from the Furness district of Lancashire. It must sometimes correspond to the common French name Dufour, from four, oven. We also have the name Ovens. Stables, when not identical with Staples (p. 123), belongs to the same class as Mews. Chambers, found in Scotland as Chalmers, is official, the medieval de la Chambre often referring to the Exchequer Chamber of the City of London. Bettchambers has probably no connection with this word. It appears to be an imitative spelling of Belencombre, a place near Dieppe, for the entry de Belencumbre is of frequent occurrence. Places of confinement are represented by Gale, SHOP SIGNS 135 gaol (p. 32), Pcnn, whence Inkpen (Berkshire), Pond, Pound, and Pen/old or Pinfold. But Gales Is also for Anglo-Fr. Galles, Wales. Butts may come from the archery ground, while Butt is generally to be referred to the French name Bout (p. 75) or to Budd (p. 75). Cordery, for de la corderie, of the rope-walk, has been confused with the much more picturesque Cor- deroy, i.e. cceur de roi. SHOP SIGNS As is well known, medieval shops had signs instead of numbers, and traces of this custom are still to be seen in country towns. It is quite obvious that town surnames would readily spring into existence from such signs. The famous name Rothschild, always mispro- nounced in English, goes back to the "red shield" over Nathan Rothschild's shop in the Jewry of Frankfurt; and within the writer's memory two brothers named Grainge in the little town of Uxbridge were familiarly known as Bible Grainge and Gridiron Grainge. Many animal surnames are to be referred partly to this source, e.g. Bull, Hart, Lamb, Lyon, Ram, Roebuck, Stagg; Cock, Falcon, Peacock, Raven, Swann, etc., all still common as tavern signs. The popinjay, or parrot, is still occasionally found as Pobgee, Popjoy. These surnames all have, of course, an alternative explana- tion (ch. xxiii.)* Here also usually belong Angel and Virgin. A considerable number of such names pro- bably consist of those taken from figures used in heraldry or from objects which indicated the craft practised, or the special commodity in which the tradesman dealt. Such are Arrow, Bell, Buckle, Crosskeys, Crowne, Gauntlett, Hatt, Home, Image, 136 THE HAUNTS OF MAN Key, Lilley, Meatyard, measuring wand " Ye shall do no unrighteousness in judgment, in meteyard, in weight, or in measure'' (Lev. xix. 35) Rose, Shears, and perhaps Blades, Shipp, Spurr, Starr, Sword. Thomas Palle, called " Sheres," died in London, 1376. But here again we must walk delicately. The Germanic name Hatto, borne by the wicked bishop who perished in the Mauseturm, gave the French name Halt with the accusative form Hatton* Horn is an old personal name, as in the medieval romance of King Horn, Shipp is a common provincialism for sheep,* Starr has another explanation (p. 219) and Bell has several (p. 8). I should guess that Porteous was the sign used by some medieval writer of mass-books and breviaries. Its oldest form is the Anglo-Fr. porte-hors, corresponding to medieval Lat. portiforium, a breviary, lit. what one carries outside, a portable prayer-book " For on my porthors here 1 make an oath." (B, 1321.) But as the name is found without prefix in the Hundred Rolls, it may have been a nickname conferred on some clericus who was proud of so rare a possession. 1 A five-pointed star, Old Fr. molette, rowel of a spur. 2 IE Old French a certain number of names, mostly of Germanic origin, had an accusative in -o, e.g. Guy, Guyon, Hugues, Hugon. From Lat. Pontius came Poinz, Poinson, whence our Poyntz, less pleasingly Punch, and Punshon. In the Pipe Rolls these are also spelt Pin-, whence Pinch, Pinchin, and Pinches. 8 Hence the connection between the ship and the " ha'porth of tar." CHAPTER XIV NORMAN BLOOD " Such, however, is the illusion of antiquity and wealth that decent and dignified men now existing boast their descent from these filthy thieves " (EMERSON, English Traits, ch. iv.). NOT every Norman or Old French name need be included In the group described by Emerson when talking down to an uneducated audience. In fact, it is probable that the majority of genuine French names belong to a later period ; for, although the baron who accompanied the Conqueror would in many cases keep his old territorial designation, the minor ruffian would, as a rule, drop the name of the obscure hamlet from which he came and assume some surname more convenient in his new surroundings. Local names of Old French origin are usually taken from the provinces and larger towns which had a meaning for English ears. I have given examples of such in chapter xi Of course it is easy to take a detailed map of Northern France and say, without offering any proof, that "Avery (p. 82) is from Evreux, Belcher (p. 196) from Bellecourt, Custance*. (p. 95) from Contances/' and so on. But any serious student knows this to be idiotic nonsense. The fact that, except in the small minority composed of the senior branches of the noblest houses, the surname was not hereditary till centuries after the Conquest, justifies any bearer of a 137 138 NORMAN BLOOD Norman name taken from a village or smaller locality in repudiating all connection with the " filthy thieves " and conjecturing descent from some decent artisan belonging to one of the later immigrations. That a considerable number of aristocratic families, and others, bear an easily recognizable French town or village name is of course well known, but it will usually be found that such names are derived from places which are as plentiful in France as our own Ashleys, Bartons, Burtons, Langleys, Newtons, But- tons, etc., are in England. In some cases a local French name has spread in an exceptional manner. Examples are Baines (Bains, 2 *), Gurney (Gournai, 6), Vernon (3). But usually in such cases we find a large number of spots which may have given rise to the sur- name, e.g* Beaumont (46, without counting Belmont), Dampier (Dampierre, i.e. St. Peter's, 28), Daubeney, Dabney (Aubigne, 4, Aubigny, 17), Ferrers (Ferrieres, 22), Neoitt (Neuville, 58), Nugent (Nogent, 17), Villiers (58). This last name, representing Vulgar Lat. ml* larium, is the origin of Ger. -weiler, so common in German village names along the old Roman roads, e.g. Badenweiler, Froschweiler, etc, When we come to those surnames of this class which have remained somewhat more exclusive, we generally find that the place-name is also comparatively rare. Thus Hawtrey is from Hauterive (7), Pierpoint from Pierrepont (5), Furneaux from Fourneaux (5), Vipont and Vipan from Vieux-Pont (3), and there are three places called Percy. The following have two possible 1 The figures in brackets indicate the number of times that the French local name occurs in the Postal Directory. The above is the usual explanation of Baines, found with de in the Hundred Rolls. But I think it was sometimes a nickname, "bones, applied to a thin man. I find William Banes in Lancashire in 1252 ; cf. CORRUPT FORMS 139 birthplaces e&chBettew or Pellew (Belieau), Cantelo (Canteloup 1 ), Mauleverer (Maulevrier), Mompesson (Mont Pingon or Pinchon), Montmorency, Mortimer (Morte-mer). The following are unique Carter et, Doll* (Dol), Fiennes, Furnival (Fournival), Grevitte, Har court, Melville (Meleville), Montr esor, Mowbray (Monbrai), Sackville (Sacquenville), V enables. These names are taken at random, but the same line of investigation can be followed up by any reader who thinks it worth while. Apart from aristocratic questions, it is interesting to notice the contamination which has occurred be- tween English and French surnames of local origin. The very common French suffix -vitte is regularly confounded with our -field. Thus Summerfield is the same name as Somerville, Dangerfield is for d'Anger- ville, Bdfield for Belleville, Blomfield for Blonville, and Stutfield for Estouteville, while Grenmlle, Grannlle have certainly become confused with our Grenfett, green fell, and Greenfield. Camden notes that Turber- ville became Troublefield> and I have found the inter- mediate TruUemlle in the twelfth century. The case of Tess Durbey 'field will occur to every reader. The suffix -fort has been confused with our -ford and -forth, so that Rochford is in some cases for Rochefort and Beeforth for Beaufort or Belfort. With the first syllable of Beeforth we may compare Beewr for Beauvoir, Bel- voir, Beecham for Beauchamp, and Beamish for Beau- mais. The name Beamish actually occurs as that of a village in Durham, the earlier form of which points to Old French origin, from beau mes } Lat. bellum mansum, a fair manse, i.e. dwelling. Otherwise it 1 But tlie doublet CHantelonp is common. 8 Tins may also be a metronymic, from Dorothy. 140 NORMAN BLOOD would be tempting to derive the surname Beamish from Ger. bohmisch, earlier behmisch, Bohemian. A brief survey of French spot-names which have passed into English will show that they were acquired in exactly the same way as the corresponding English names. Norman ancestry is, however, not always to be assumed in this case. Until the end of the four- teenth century a large proportion of our population was bi-lingual, and names accidentally recorded in Anglo-French may occasionally have stuck. Thus the name Boyes or Boyce may spring from a man of pure English descent who happened to be described as del bois instead of atte wood, just as Capron (p. 198) means Hood. While English spot-names have as a rule shed both the preposition and the article (p. 104), French usually keeps one or both, though these were more often lost when the name passed into England. Thus our Roach is not a fish-name, but corresponds to Fr. Laroche or Delaroche ; and the blind pirate Pew, if not a Welshman, ap Hugh, was of the race of Dupuy, from Old Fr. puy, a hill, Lat. podium, a height, gallery, etc., whence also our pew, once a raised platform. In some cases the prefix has passed into English ; e.g. Diprose is from des preaux, of the meadows, a name assumed by Boileau among others. There are, of course, plenty of places in France called Les Preaux, but in the case of such a name we need not go further than possession of, or residence by, a piece of grass-land " Je sais im paysan qu'on appelalt Gros-Pierre, Qtti, n'ayaat pour tout bien qu'un seul quartier de terre, Y fit tout alentour faire un fosse bourbeux, Et de monsieur d& I'Isle en prit le nom pompeux/* (Moliere L'EcoU d&s Femmes, i. I.) TREE NAMES 141 The Old French singular pr&d Is perhaps the origin of Pratt, Prawle. Similarly Preece, Frees, usually for Price, may sometimes be for des pres. With Boyes (p. 140) we may compare Tattis from Fr. taittis, a copse (tattler, to cut). Gar rick, a Huguenot name, is Fr. garigue, an old word for heath. Trees have In all countries a strong influence on topographical names, and hence on surnames. Frean, though usually from the Scandinavian name Frana, is sometimes for Fr. fr&ne, ash, Lat. fraxinus, while Cain and Raines 1 are Norm, quBne (cMne), oak. The modern French for beech Is Mire, Du. heesier, but Lat, fagus has given a great many dialect forms which have supplied us with the surnames Fay, Foy, and the plural dim. Failes. Here also I should put the name Defoe, assumed by the writer whose father was satisfied with Foe. With Quatrefages, four beeches, we may compare such English names as Fiveash, Twelvetrees, and Snooks, for {{ seven oaks/' In Latin the suffix -etum was used to designate a grove or plantation. This suffix, or Its plural -&ta, is very common In France, becoming successively -ei(e), -oi(e), -ai(e). The name Dobree is a Guernsey spelling of d'Aubray, Lat. arboretum, which was dissimulated (p. 36) into alboretum. Darblay, the name of Fanny Burney's husband, is a variant. From au(fyne, alder, we have annai, whence our Dawway, So also fr&nai has given Frceney, chtnai, Chaney, and the Norm. qtt$nai is one origin of Kenney, while the older chesnai appears in Chesney. Houssaie, from hou%, holly, gives Hussey ; chastenai, chestnut grove, exists In Nottingham as Chasteney ; coudmi, hazel copse, gives Cowdrey and 1 There is one family of Keynes derived specifically from Cha- Iiaignes (Sartlie). 142 NORMAN BLOOD Cowdery ; Verney and Varney are from vernai, grove of alders, of Celtic origin, and Viney corresponds to the French name Vinoy, Lat. mnetum. We have also Chinnery, Chenerey from the extended chenemi, and Pomeroy from pommerai. Here again the name offers no clue as to the exact place of origin. There ^are in the French Postal Directory eight places called Eplnay, from epine, thorn, but these do not exhaust the number of " spinnies " in France. Also connected with tree-names are Conyers, Old Fr. coigniers, quince- trees, and Pine, Perry, Anglo-Fr. perie, a collective from peire (poire}. Among Norman names for a homestead the favourite is mesnil, from Vulgar Lat. mansionile, which enters into a great number of local names. It has given our Meynell, and is also the first element of Mainwaring, Mannering, from mesnil-Warin. The simple mes, a southern form of which appears in Dumas, has given us Mees and Meese, which are thus etymological doublets of the word manse. With Beamish (p. 139) we may compare Bellasis, from bel~a$sis, fairly situated, Poyntz is sometimes for des ponts ; ct Pierpoint for Pierrepont. Even Norman names which were undoubtedly borne by leaders among the Conqueror's companions are now rarely found among the noble, and many a des- cendant of these once mighty families cobbles the shoes of more recent invaders. Even so the descend- ants of the Spanish nobles who conquered California are glad to peddle vegetables at the doors of San Francisco magnates whose fathers dealt in old clothes in some German Judengasse. CHAPTER XV OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES "When Adam delved and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman ? " Chant of Wat Tyler's followers. THE occupative name would, especially in villages, tend to become a very natural surname. It is not therefore surprising to find so large a number of this class among our commonest surnames, e.g. Smith, Taylor, Wright, Walker, Turner, Clark, Cooper, etc. And, as the same craft often persisted in a family for generations, it was probably this type of surname which first became hereditary. On the other hand, such names as Cook, Gardiner, Carter, etc., have no -doubt In some cases prevailed over another surname lawfully acquired (see p. 5). It is impossible to fix an approximate date for the definite adoption of sur- names of this class. It occurred earlier in towns than in the country, and by the middle of the four- teenth century we often find in the names of London citizens a contradiction between the surname and the trade-fiame ; e.g. Walter Ussher, tanner, John Botoner, girdler, Roger Carpenter, pepperer, Richard le Hunte, chaundeler, occur 1336-52. The number of sur- names belonging to this group is immense, for every medieval trade and craft was highly specialized and its privileges were jealously guarded. The general 143 144 OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES public, which now, like Issachar, crouches between the trusts and the trades unions, was in the middle ages similarly victimized by the guilds of merchants and craftsmen. Then, as now, it grumblingly recognized that, f( Plus a change, plus ?a reste la meme chose/ ' and went on enduring. 1 By dealing with a few essential points at the outset we shall clear the ground for considering the various groups of surnames connected with trade, craft, pro- fession or office. T<& begin with, it is certain that such names as Pope, Cayzer, King, Earl, Bishop are nick- names, very often conferred on performers in religious plays or acquired in connection with popular festivals and processions *' Names also have been taken of civil honours, dignities and estate, as King, Duke, Prince, Lord, Baron, Knight, Valvasor or Vavasor, Squire, Castellan, partly for that their ances tours were such, served such, acted such parts ; or were Kings of the Bean, Christmas-Lords, etc." (Camden). We find corresponding names in other languages, and some of the French names, usually preceded by the definite article, have passed into English, e.g. Lempriere, a Huguenot name, and Leveque, whence our Levick, Vick, Veck (p. 33). Baron generally appears as Barron, and Duke, used in Mid. English of any leader, is often degraded to Duck, whence the dim. Duckett. But all three of these names can also be 1 If a student of philology were allowed to touch on such high matters as legislation, I would moralize on the word kiddle, meaning an illegal kind of weir used for fish-poaching, whence perhaps the surname KiAdelL From investigations made with a view to chs- covering the origin of the word, I came to the conclusion that all the legislative powers in England spent three centuries in passing enactments against these devices, with the inevitable consequence that they became ever more numerous. SOCIAL GRADES 145 referred to Marmaduke. It would be tempting to put Palsgrave in this class. Prince Rupert, the Pfahgraf, i.e. Count Palatine, was known as the Palsgrave in Ms day, but I have not found the title recorded early enough. With Lord we must put the northern Laird, and, in my opinion, Senior ; for, if we notice how much commoner Young is than Old, and Fr. Lejeune than Levieux, we must conclude that Junior, a very rare surname, ought to be of much more frequent occur- rence than Senior, Synyer, a fairly common name. There can be little doubt that Senior is usually a latinization of the medieval le seigneur, whence also Saynor. Knight is not always knightly, for Anglo- Sax, cniht means servant ; cf . Ger. Knecht. The word got on in the world, with the consequence that the name is very popular, while its medieval compeers, knave, varlet, villain, have, even when adorned with the adj. good, dropped out of the surname list. Bon- valet, Bonvarlet, Bonvillain are still common surnames in France. From Knight we have the compound Road- night, a mounted servitor. Thus Knight is more often a true occupative name, and the same applies to Bring or Dreng, a Scandinavian name of similar meaning. Other names from the middle rungs of the social ladder are also to be taken literally, e.g. Franklin, a freeholder, Anglo-Fr. frankelein ** How called you your franklin , Prior Aylmer ? " cr Cedric,' * answered tlie Prior, " Cedric the Saxon " (Ivanhoe, ch. I.) Burgess, Freeman, Freeborn. The latter is sometimes for Freebairn and exists already as the Anglo-Saxon personal name Freobeorn, Denison (p. 14) is occa- ii 146 OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES sionally an accommodated form of denizen, Anglo-Fr. deinzein, a burgess enjoying the privileges belonging to those who lived " deinz (in) la cit" In 1483 a certain Edward Jhonson " Sued to be mayde Denison for fer of y 6 payment of y* subsedy*" (Letter to Sir William Stonor, June 9, 1483.) Bond is from Anglo-Sax, bonda, which means simply agriculturist. The word is of Icelandic origin and related to Boor, another word which has deteriorated and is rare as a surname, though the cognate Bauer Is common enough in Germany. Holder is translated by Tennant. For some other names applied to the humbler peasantry see p. 133. To return to the social summit, we have Ringson, often confused with the local Kingston, and its Anglo- French equivalent Fauntleroy. Faunt, aphetic for Anglo-Fr. enfaunt, is common in Mid. English. When the mother of Moses had made the ark of bulrushes, or, as Wyclif calls it, the " jonket of resshen/' she " Putte the litil fount with ynne " (Exodus ii. 3)1 The Old French accusative (p. 9, n.) was also used as a genitive, as in Bourg-le-roi, Bourg-la-reine, corre- sponding to our Kingsbury and Queensborough. We have a genitive also in Flowerdew, found in French as Flourdieu. Lower, in his Patronymica Britannica (1860), the first attempt at a dictionary of English surnames, 1 conjectures Fauntleroy to be from an ancient French war-cry Dfendez le roi ! for " in course 1 I have quoted this " etymology " because it is too funny to be lost; but a good deal of useful information can be found in Lower, especially with regard to the habitat of well-known names. ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES- 147 of time, the meaning of the name being forgotten, the de would be dropped, and the remaining syllables would easily glide into Fawtileroy" Names of ecclesiastics must usually be nicknames, because medieval churchmen were not entitled to have descendants. This appears clearly in such an entry as " Bishop the crossbowman/ 1 or S Johannes Monacus et uxor ejus Emma/' living in Kent in the twelfth century. But these names are so numerous that I have put them with the Canterbury Pilgrims (ch. xvii.). Three of them maybe mentioned here in con- nection with a small group of occupative surnames of puzzling form. We have noticed (p. 104) that monosyllabic, and some other, surnames of local origin frequently take an -s, partly by analogy with names like Wills, Watts, etc. We rarely find this -s in the case of occupative names, but Parsons, Vicars or Vickers, and Monks are common, and in fact the first two are scarcely found without the ~s* To these we may add Reeves (p. 164), Grieves (p. 181), and the well-known Nottingham name Mellers (p. 164). The explanation seems to be that these names are true genitives, and that John Parsons was John the Parson's man, while John Monks was employed by the monastery. This is confirmed by such entries as " Walter atte Parsons," " John del Par sons" " Allen *rffe Prestes," (i William delFreres," " Thomas King Edward Confessor's staller, was cast upon the pavement of the Church by a demon's hand for his insolent pride in presence of the relics (of St. Edmund, King and Martyr)/' (W. H. Hutton, Bampton Lectures, 1903.) The ending -ster was originally feminine, and applied to trades chiefly carried on by women, e.g. Baxter, Bagster, baker, Brewster, Simister, sempster, Webster, etc., but in process of time the distinction was lost, so that we find Blaxter and Whitster for Blacker, Blaker, and Whiter, both of which, curiously enough, have the same meaning " Bley&ester or whytster, candidarius " (Prompt. Par} for this black represents Mid. Eng. bloc, related to bleak and bleach, and meaning pale "Blake, wan of colour, Uesme (bl&me)" (Palsgrave). Occupative names of French origin are apt to vary according to the period and dialect of their adoption. For Butcher we find also Booker, Bowker, and sometimes the later Bosher, Busker, with the same sound for the ch as in LaboueHbre, the lady butcher. But Booker may also mean what it appears to mean, as Mid. Eng. bokere is used by Wyclif for the Latin scriba. Butcher, originally a dealer in goat's flesh, Fr. bouc, has ousted fiesher. German still has 150 OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES half a dozen surnames derived from names for this trade, e.g. Fleischer t Fleischmann, 1 Metzger, Schlech- ter ; but our flesher has been absorbed by Fletcher, a maker of arrows, Fr, fleche. Fletcher Gate at Nottingham was formerly Flesher Gate. The undue extension of Taylor has already been mentioned (p. 44). Another example is Barker, which has swallowed up the Anglo-Fr. berquier, a shepherd, Fr. berger, with the result that the Barkers outnumber the Tanners by three to one " * What craftsman are you ? ' said our King, ' I pray you, tell me now/ * I am a barker,' quoth the tanner ; * What craftsman art thou ? ' " (Edward IV. and the Tanner of Tamworth.) The name seems to have been applied also to the man who barked trees for the tanner, With Barker it seems natural to mention Mewcr, of which I find one representative in the London Directory. The medieval le muur had charge of the mews in which the hawks were kept while moulting (Fr. muer t Lat. mutare). Hence the phrase " mewed up." The word seems to have been used for any kind of coop. Chaucer tells us of the Franklin " Ful many a fat partrich hadde he in mum " (A, 349). I suspect that some of the Muirs (p. 113) spring from this important office. Similarly Clayer has been ab- sorbed by the local Clare, Kayer, the man who made keys, by Care, and Blower, whether of horn or bellows, has paid tribute to the local Bloor, Blare. Sewer, an 1 Hellenized as Sarkander. This was a favourite trick of German scholars at the Renaissance period. Well-known examples are Melaacthon (Schwarzerd), Neander (Neumann). MISSING TRADESMEN 151 attendant at table, aphetic for Old Fr. asseour, a setter, is now a very rare name. As we know that sewer, a drain, became shore, it is probable that the surname Shore sometimes represents this official or servile title. And this same name Shore, though not particularly common, and susceptible of a simple local origin, labours under grave suspicion of having also enriched itself at the expense of the medieval le suur, the shoemaker, Lat. sutor-em, whence Fr. Lesueur. This would inevitably become Sewer and then Shore, as above. Perhaps, in the final reckoning, Shaw Is not altogether guiltless, for I know of one family in which this has replaced earlier Shore. The medieval le suur brings us to another problem, viz. the poor show made by the craftsmen who clothed the upper and lower extremities of our ancestors. The name Hatter, once frequent enough, is almost extinct, and Capper is not very common. The name Shoemaker has met with the same fate, though the trade is represented by the Lat. Sutor, whence Scot. Souter. Here belong also Cordner, Codner, 1 Old Fr. cordouanier (cordonnier) , a cordwainer, a worker in Cordovan leather, and Corser, Cosser, earlier corviser, corresponding to the French name Courvoisier, also derived from Cordova. Chaucer, in describing the equipment of Sir Thopas, mentions "His shoon of cordewane" (B, 1922). The scarcity of Groser, grocer, is not surprising, for the word, aphetic for engrosser, originally meaning a wholesale dealer, one who sold en gros, is of compara- tively late occurrence. His medieval representative * Confused! of course f with the local Codnor (DerfrysMre), 152 OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES was Spicer. On the other hand, many occupative titles which are now obsolete, or practically so, still survive strongly as surnames. Examples of these will be found in chapters xvii.-xx. Some occupative names are rather deceptive. Kisser, which is said still to exist, means a maker of cuishes, thigh-armour, Fr. cuisses " Helm, cuish, and breastplate streamed with gore." (Lord of the Isles, iv. 33.) Corker is for caulker, i.e. one who stopped the chinks of ships and casks, originally with lime (Lat. calx) " Sir, we have a chest beneath the hatches, caulk' d and bitumed ready'* (Pericles iii. i). Cleaver represents Old Fr, clavier, a mace-bearer, Lat. clava, a club, or a door-keeper, Lat. clavis, a key. Perhaps even clavus, a nail, must also be considered, for a Latin vocabulary of the fifteenth century tells us " Cl&ves, -vos vei -vas qui fert sit claviger." Neither Bowler nor Scorer are connected with cricket. The former made wooden bowls, and the latter was sometimes a scourer, or scout, Mid. Eng. scurrour, a word of rather complicated origin, but perhaps more frequently a peaceful scullion, from Fr. ecurer, to scour, Lat. ex-curare " Escureur, a scourer, cleanser, feyer 1 " (Cotgrave). A Leaper did not Always leap (p. 165). The verb had also in Mid. English the sense of running away, so that the name may mean fugitive. In some cases it may represent a maker of leaps, i.e. fish baskets, or perhaps a man who hawked fish in such a basket. A 1 A sweeper, now perhaps represented by Fayev. SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES 153 Slayer made days, part of a weaver's loom, and a Bloomer worked In a bloom-smithy, from Anglo-Sax. bloma, a mass of hammered iron. Weightman and Way man represent Mid. Eng. wafyeman, hunter; cf. the common German surname Weidemann, of cognate origin. Reader and Booker are not always literary. The former is for Reeder, a thatcher " Redare of howsys, calaniatov, arundinarius " (Prompt. Parv.} and the latter is a Norman variant of Butcher (p. 149). The spelling of occtipative surnames often differs from that now associated with the trade itself. In Naylor, Taylor, and Tyler 1 we have the archaic pre- ference for y. Our ancestors thought sope as good a spelling as soap, hence the name Soper. A Plmnmer, i.e. a man who worked in lead, Lat. plumbum, is now written, by etymological reaction, plumber, though the restored letter is not sounded. A man who dealt in *arb$ originated the name Arber, which we should now replace by herbalist. We have a restored spelling in clerk, though educated people pronounce the word as it was once written " Clarke, or lie that readeth. distinctly, clericus" (Holyoak's Lat. DIct. 1612.) In many cases we are unable to say exactly what is the occupation indicated. We may assume that a Setter and a Tipper did setting and tipping, and both are said to have been concerned in the arrow industry, If this is true, I should say that Setter might repre- sent the Old Fr. saieteur, arrow-maker, from saiete, 1 It may be noted here that John Tiler of Dartford, who killed a tax-gatherer for insulting his daughter, was not Wat Tiler, who was killed at Smithfield for insulting the King. The confusion between the two has led to much sympathy being wasted -on a ruffian. 154 OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES an arrow, Lat. sagitta. But in a medieval vocabulary we find " setter of mes, dapifer" which would make it the same as Sewer (p. 151). Similarly, when we consider the number of objects that can be tipped, we shall be shy of defining the activity of the Tipper too closely. Trinder, earlier trender, is from Mid. Eng. trenden, to roll (ci Roller). In the west country trinder now means specifically a wool-winder " Lat hym rollen and trenden withynn hyznself the lyght of Ms ynwarde sighte " (Boecs, 1043). There are also some names of this class to which we can with certainty attribute two or more origins. Boulter means a maker of bolts for crossbows, 1 but also a sifter, from the obsolete verb to bolt 11 The fanned snow, that's bolted By the northern blasts twice o'er." (Winter's Tale, iv, 3.) Corner means horn-blower, Fr. cor, horn, and is also a contraction of coroner, but its commonest origin is local, in angulo, in the corner, Currer and Curry er are gener- ally connected with leather, but Henry VII. bestowed 3 on the currer that brought tidings of Perkin War- beck. Garner has five possible origins : (i) a contrac- tion of gardener, (ii) from the French personal name Gamier, Ger. Werner , (iii) Old Fr. grenier, grain-keeper, (iv) Old Fr. garennier, warren keeper, (v) local, from garner, Fr. grenier > Lat. granarium. In the next chap- ter will be found, as a specimen problem, an investiga- tion of the name Rntter. Two phonetic phenomena should also be noticed. One is the regular insertion of n before the ending -ger, as in Firminger (p. 148), Massinger (p. 185), Pot- 4 How many people who use the expression " bolt upright ** associate it with " straight as a dart " ? PHONETIC CHANGES 155 tinger (p. 176), and in Arminger, Clavinger, from the latinized armiger, esquire, and danger, mace-bearer, etc. (p. 152). The other is the fact that many occu- pative names ending in -rer lose the -er by dissimila- tion (p. 36). Examples are Armour for armourer, Barter for barterer, Buckler for bucklerer, but also for buckle-maker, Calhnder for calenderer, one who calendered, i.e. pressed, cloth "And my good Mend the callendev Will lend Ha horse to go." (John Gilpin, L 22) Coffer, for cofferer, a treasurer, Cover, for coverer, i.e. tiler, Fr. couvreur, when it does not correspond to Fr. ctmier, i.e. a maker of cttves, vats, Ginger, Grammer, for grammarer 3 Paternoster \ maker of pater- nosters or rosaries, Pepper, Sellar, for cellarer (see p. 29), Tabor, for Taberer> player on the taber. Here also belongs Treasure, for treasurer. Salter is sometimes for sautrier, a player on the psaltery. We have the opposite process in poulterer for PouUer (p. 15), and caterer for Gator (p. 33). Such names as Ginger, Pepper, may however belong to the class of nicknames conferred on dealers in cer- tain commodities ; cf . Pescod, Peskett, from pease-cod, Of this we have several examples which can be con- firmed by foreign parallels, e.g. Garlick, found in German as Knoblauch, 1 Straw, represented in German by the cognate name Stroll, and Pease, which is certified by Fr. Despois. We find Witepease in the twelfth century. Especially common are those names which deal with the two staple foods of the country, bread and * The cognate Eng. Clw$4$ek occurs as a surname in the Ramsey Clxartolary. 156 OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES beer. In German we find several compounds of Brot, bread, and one of the greatest of chess-players bore the amazing name Zuckertort, sugar- tart. In French we have such names as Painchaud, Painleve, Pain- tendre "Eugene Aram was usher, In 1744, to the Rev. Mr, Painblanc, in Piccadilly" (Bardsley). Hence our Cakebread and Whitbread were probably names given to bakers. Simnel Is explained in the same way, and Lambert Simnel is understood to have been a baker's lad, but the name could equally well be from Fr. Simonel, dim. of Simon. Wastall is found in the Hundred Rolls as Wastel, Old Fr. gastel (gateau). Here also belongs Cracknell " Craquelin, a cracknelt ; made of the yolks of egges, water, and flower; and fasMoned like a hollow trendle" (Cotgrave). Goodbeer is explained by Bardsley as a perversion of Godber (p. 72), which may be true, but the name is also to be taken literally. We have Ger. Gutbier, and the existence of Sourale in the Hundred Rolls and Sower- butts at the present day justifies us in accepting both Goodbeer and Goodale at their face-value. But Rice is an imitative form of Welsh Rhys, Reece, and Salt, when not derived from Salt in Stafford, is from Old Fr. sault, 1 a wood, Lat. saltus. It is doubtful whether the name Cheese is to be included here. Jan Kees, for . John Cornelius, said to have been a nickname for a Hollander, may easily have reached the Eastern counties. Bardsley's earliest instance for the name is John Chese^who was living in Norfolk in 1273. But still 1 find Furmage as a medieval surname. We also 1 This is common in place-names, and I should suggest, as a guess, that Sacheo&reU is from the village of Sault-Chevreuil-du-Tronchet (Manche). NAMES FROM WARES 157 have the dealer in meat represented by the classical example of Hogsflesh, with which we may compare Mutton and Veal, two names which may be seen fairly near each other in Hammersmith Road (but for these see also p. 223), and I have known a German named Kalbfleisch. Names of this kind would sometimes come into existence through the practice of crying wares; though if Mr. Rottenherring, who was a freeman of York in 1332, obtained his in this way, he must have deliberately ignored an ancient piece of wisdom. CHAPTER XVI A SPECIMEN PROBLEM '* Howe sayst thou, man. ? am not I a joly vutter ? " (SKELTON, Magnyfycence, I. 762.) THE fairly common name Rutter Is a good example of the difficulty of explaining a surname derived from a trade or calling no longer practised. Even so careful an authority as Bardsley has gone hopelessly astray over this name. He says, " German ritter, a rider, i.e. a trooper/' and quotes from Halliwell, " rutter, a rider, a trooper, from the German ; a name given to mercenary soldiers engaged from Brabant, etc." Now this statement is altogether opposed to chronology. The name occurs as fa roter, rotour, ruter in the Hundred Rolls of 1273, i.e. more than two centuries before any German name for trooper could possibly have become familiar in England, Any stray Mid. High Ger. Riter would have been assimilated to the cognate Eng. Rider. It is possible that some German Reuters have become English Rutters in comparatively modern times, but the German surname Reuter has nothing to do with a trooper. It represents Mid. High Ger. riutcere, a clearer of land, from the verb riuten (reuien), cor- responding to Low Ger. rocten, and related to our royd, a clearing (p. in). This word is apparently not con- nected with our root, though it. means to root RUTTER 159 but ultimately belongs to a root ru which appears in Lat. rutrum, a spade, rutalulum, a rake, etc. There is another Ger, "Renter, a trooper, which has given the sixteenth-century Eng. rutter, but not as a surname. The word appears in German about 1500, i.e. rather late for the surname period, and comes from Du. ruiter, a mercenary trooper. The German for trooper is Reiter, really the same word as RiUer t a knight, the two forms having been differentiated in meaning ; cf . Fr, cavalier, a trooper, and chevalier, a knight. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Ger. Reiter was confused with, and supplanted by, this borrowed word Renter, which was taken to mean rider, and we find the cavalry called Reuterei well into the eighteenth century. As a matter of fact the two words are quite unrelated, though the origin of Du. ruiter is disputed, The New English Dictionary gives, from the year 1506, rutter (var. ruler, ruiter), a cavalry soldier, especi- ally German, from Du. ruiter, whence Ger. Renter, as above. It connects the Dutch word with medieval Lat. rutarius, i.e. ruptarius, which is also Kluge's 1 view. But Franck l sees phonetic difficulties and prefers to regard ruiter as belonging rather to ruiten, to uproot. The application of the name up-rooter to a lawless mercenary is not unnatural. But whatever be the ultimate origin of this Dutch and German military word, it is sufficiently obvious that it cannot have given an English surname which is already common in the thirteenth century. There is a much earlier claimant in the field. The New English Dictionary has roter (1297), var. rotour, rotor, and 1 Deutsclies Etymologisclies Worterbucla. & Etymologised Woordenboek der Nederlaadsclie TaaL i6o A SPECIMEN PROBLEM router (1379), a lawless person, robber, ruffian, from Old Fr. rotier (routier), and also the form rutar, used by Philemon Holland, who, in his translation of Camden's Britannia (1610), says " That age called foraine and willing souldiours rutars." The reference is to King John's mercenaries, c. 1215. Fr. routier, a mercenary, is usually derived from route, a band, Lat. rupta, a piece broken off, a detachment. References to the grandes routes, the great mercenary bands which over- ran France in the fourteenth century, are common in French history. But the word was popularly, and naturally, connected with route, Lat. (via) rupta, a high- way, so that Godefroy l separates routier, a vagabond, from routier, a bandit soldier. Cotgrave has " Routiev, an old traveller, one that by much trotting up and down is grown acquainted with most waies ; and hence, an old beaten souldier ; one whom a long practise hath made experienced in, or absolute master of, his profession ; and (in evill part) an old crafty fox, notable beguiler, ordinary deceiver, subtill knave ; also, a purse-taker, or a robber by the high way side." It is impossible to determine the relative shares of route, a band, and route, a highway, in this definition, but there has probably been natural confusion between two words, separate in meaning, though etymologically identical. Now our thirteenth-century rotors and ruters may represent Old Fr. routier, and have been names applied to a mercenary soldier or a vagabond. But this cannot be considered certain. If we consult du Cange/ we find, s.v. rump ere, " ruptarii, pro ruptuarii, quidam prsedones sub xl saeculum, ex rusticis . . . collect! ac conflati," which suggests connection with " ruptuarius, 1 Dictionnaire de I'ancun Franqais, t Qlossarium ad Scriptoves meMes et infimcs LaUnitatis* RUXTER 161 colonus qui agrum sen terram rumpit, prosclndlt, colit/ 1 i.e. that the ruptarii, also called rutarii, rutharii, rotharii, rotarii, etc., were so named because they were revolting peasants, i.e. men connected with the roture, or breaking of the soil, from which we get roturier, a plebeian. That would still connect our Ruiters with Lat. rumpere, but by a third road. Finally, Old French has one more word which seems to me quite as good a candidate as any of the others, viz. rofeur, a player on the rote, i.e. the fiddle used by the medieval minstrels, Chaucer says of his Frere "Wel koude he synge and playen on a rofe." (A, 236.) The word is possibly of Celtic origin (Welsh crwth) and a doublet of the archaic crowd, or cr Chapter may be also from escheatouy, an official who has given us the word cheat. ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES 165 a dancer, an artist who also survives as Hopper and Leaper " To one that leped at Chestre, 6s. 8." (Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VI If- 1495.) The pilgrims were accompanied by the host of the Tabard Inn, whose occupation has given us the names Inman and Hostler, Oastler, Old Fr. hosteller (hdtelier), now applied to the inn servant who looks aiter the Bosses. Another form is the modern-looking Hustler. Distinct from these is Osier , Fr. oiseleur, a bird-catcher; cf . Fowler. If we deal here with ecclesiastical names, as being really nicknames (p. 147), that will leave the trader and craftsman, the peasant, and the official or servile class to be treated in separate chapters. Social, as distinguished from occupative, surnames have already been touched on, and the names, not very numerous, connected with warfare have also been mentioned in various connections. Among ecclesiastical names Monk has the largest number of variants. Its Anglo-French form is some- times represented by Munn and Moon, while Money is the oldest Fr. monie; cl Vicary from Old Fr. wcarie. But the French names La Monnaie, de la Monnaie, axe local, from residence near the mint. The canon ap- pears as Cannon, Channen, and Shannon, Fr. ohanoinc " With this chanoun I dwelt have seven yere " (G, 720); but Dean is also local sometimes (p. 112) and Deacon is an imitative form of Dakin or Deakin, from David * He was usually more generous to the higli arts, e.g. " To a Spaynarde that pleyed the fole, ja," " To the young damoysell that daunceth, 30.*' With which cf. " To Carter for writing of a boke, 7$. 4^." 166 THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS (p. 57). Charter was used of a monk of the Charter- house, a popular corruption of Chartreuse "With a company dyde I mete, As ermytes, monkes, and freres, Chanons, charter es . . ." (Cock Loreltes Bote.) Charter also comes from archaic Fr. chartier (char- retier), a carter, and perhaps sometimes from Old Fr. chartrier, t a jaylor ; also, a prisoner s " (Cotg.), which belongs to Lat. career, prison. Charters may be from the French town Chartres, but is more likely a perversion of Charterhouse, as Childers is of the obsolete "childer-house," orphanage. Among lower orders of the church we have Lister,* a reader, Bennet, an exorcist, and Collet, aphetic for acolyte. But each of these is susceptible of another origin which is generally to be preferred. Chaplin is of course for chaplain, Fr. chapelain. The legate appears as Leggatt. Crosier or Crozier means cross- bearer. At the funeral of Anne of Cleves (1557) the mass was executed " By thabbott in pontificalibus wthis croysyer, deacon and subdeacon.'* Canter, Gaunter is for chanter, and has an apparent dim. Cantrell, corresponding to the French name Chantereau. The practice, unknown in English, of forming dims, from occupative names is very com- mon in French, e.g. from Herder we have Mercerot, from Berger, i.e. Shepherd, a number of derivatives such as Bergerat, Bergeret, Bergerot, etc, Sanger and Sang- ster were not necessarily ecclesiastical Singers, Converse meant a lay-brother employed as a drudge in a monas- tery. Sacristan, the man in charge of the sacristy, from i The sense development of tnese two words is curious. ? Found in Late Latin as l&gista, from Lat. Ugete, to read. PILGRIMS 167 which we have Secretan, is contracted into Saxton and Sexton, a name now usually associated with grave- digging and bell-ringing, though the latter task once belonged to the Knowler " Carilloneur, a chymer, or hnowler of bells " (Cotgrave). This is of course connected with "knell/* though the only Kneller who has become famous was a German named Kniller. Marillier, probably a Huguenot name, is an Old French form of marguillier, a churchwarden, Lat. main- oularius. The hermit survives as Armatt, Armtit, with which cf. the Huguenot Lermitte (I'ermite), and the name of his dwelling is common (p. 130) ; Anker, now anchorite, is also extant. Fals-Semblant says "Somtyme I am religions, Now lyk an anker in an nous." (Romaunt of the Rose, 6348.) While a Pilgrim acquired his name by a journey to any shrine, a Palmer must originally have been to the Holy Land, and a Rome? to Rome. But the frequent occurrence of Palmer suggests that it was often a nickname for a pious fraud. We have a doublet of Pilgrim in Pegram, though this may come from the name Peregrine, the etymology being the same, viz. Lat. peregrinus, a foreigner. CHAPTER XVIII TRADES AND CRAFTS "What d'ye lack, noble sir? What d'ye lack, bcaiiteous madam ? " (Fortunes of Nigel, ch. i.) IN the Middle Ages there was no great class of retail dealers distinct from the craftsmen who fashioned objects. The same man made and sold in almost every case. There were of course general dealers, such as the French Marchant or his English equivalent the Chapman (p. 23), the Dutch form of which has given us the Norfolk name Copeman. The Broker is now generally absorbed by the local Brooker, There were also the itinerant merchants, of whom more anon; but in the great majority of cases the craftsman made and sold one article, and was, in fact, strictly forbidden to wander outside his special line. Fuller tells us that "England were but a fling, Save for the crooked stick and the gray-goose-wing/* and the importance of the bow and arrow is shown by the number of surnames connected with their manu- facture. We find the Bowyer, 1 Bower or Bowmaker, who trimmed and shaped the wand of yew, the Fletcher 1 This is also one source of Boyer, but the very common French surname Boyer means ox-herd. 1 68 ARCHERY 169 (p. 150), Arrowsmith, or Flower, who prepared the arrow "His bo we lie bente and sette therinne a fio 1 " (H, 264) and the Tipper, Stringer, and Homer, who attended to smaller details, though the Tipper and Stringer probably tipped and strung other things, and the Homer, though he made the horn nocks of the long-bow, also made horn cups and other objects. The extent to which specialization was carried is shown by the trade description of John Darke, longbow stringemaker, who died in 1600. The Arblaster may have either made or used the arblast or cross-bow, medieval Lat. arcu- balista, bow-sling. His name has given the imitative Alabaster. We also find the shortened Ballister and Balestier, from which we have Bannister (p. 36). Or, to take an example from comestibles, a Planner limited his activity to the making of flat cakes called flans or flawns, from Old Fr. flaon (flan), a word of Germanic origin, ultimately related to flat " He that is hanged in May will eat no flannes in Midsummer. 1 ' (The Abbot, ch. xxxiii.) Some names have become strangely restricted in meaning, e.g. Mercer, now almost limited to silk, was a name for a dealer in any kind of merchandise (Lat. merx) ; in Old French it meant pedlar '* Mercier, a good pedler, or meane haberdasher of small wares" (Cotgrave). On the other hand Chandler, properly a candle-maker, is now used in the compounds corn-chandler and ship's chandler. Of all the -mongers the only common * The true English word for arrow, Anglo-Sax, fa. 170 TRADES AND CRAFTS survival is Ironmonger or Iremonger, with the variant Isemonger, from Mid. Eng. isen, iron. Ironmonger is also dealer in eggs, Mid. Eng. eiren. The wool trade occupied a very large number of workers and has given a good many surnames. The Shearer was distinct from the Shearman or Sherman, the former operating on the sheep and the latter on the nap of the cloth. For Comber we also have the older Kempstcr, and probably Kimber, from the Mid. Eng. kemben, to comb, which survives in " unkempt/' The Walker, Fuller, and Tucker, all did very much the same work of "waulldng," or trampling, the cloth. All three words are used in Wyclif s Bible in variant renderings of Mark ix, 3. Fuller is from Fr. fouler, to trample, and Tucker is of uncertain origin. Fuller is found in the south and south-east, Tucker in the west, and Walker in the north. A Dyer was also called Dyster, and the same trade is the origin of the Latin- looking Dexter (p. 18). From Mid. Eng. litster, a dyer, a word of Scandinavian origin, comes Lister, as in Lister Gate, Nottingham. With these goes the W adman, who dealt in, or grew, the dye-plant called woad ; cf . Flaxman. A beater of flax was called Swingler " Fleyl, swyngyl, verga, tribulum, " (Prompt. Parv.). A Tozer teased the cloth with a teasel. In Mid. English the verb is tasen or tosen, so that the names Teaser and Towser, sometimes given to bull-terriers, are doublets. Seeker means sack-maker. We have already noticed the predominance of Taylor. This is the more remarkable when we con- sider that the name has as rivals the native Seamer and Shapster and the imported Parmenter, Old Fr. parmentier, a maker of parements, uow ised chiefly CLOTHIERS 171 of facings on clothes. But another, and more usual, origin of Parmenter, Parminter, Parmiter, is parch- menter, a very important medieval trade. The word would correspond to a Lat. pergamentarius, which has given also the German surname Berminter. Several old German cities had a Permentergasse, i.e. parchment- makers' street. A Pilcher made pilches, i.e. fur cloaks, an early loan-word fjrom Vulgar Lat. pellicia (pellis, skin). Chaucer's version of " Till May is out, ne'er ca'st a clout " is " After greet Jb.eet cometh colde ; No man caste his pilche away. 1 ' Another name connected with clothes is Chaucer, Old Ft. chaussier, a hosier (Lat. calceus, boot), while Admiral Hazier 3 s Ghost reminds us of the native word. The oldest meaning of hose seems to have been gaiters. It ascended in Tudor times to the dignity of breeches (cf . trunk-hose), the meaning it has in modern German. Now it has become a tradesman's euphemism for the improper word stocking, a fact which led a friend of the writer's, imperfectly acquainted with German, to ask a gifted lady of that nationality if she were a Blauhose. A Chaloner or Chawner dealt in shalloon, Mid. Eng. chalons, a material supposed to have been made at Chalons-sur-Marne " And in Ms owene chambre hem made a bed, With sheetes and with chalons faire y-spred." (A. 4139^ Ganter or Gaunter is Fr. gantier, glove-maker. Some metal-workers have already been mentioned in connection with Smith (p. 44), and elsewhere. The French F&vre, from Lat. faber, is found as Feaver. Fearon comes from Old Fr, feron, ferron, smith. Face le 172 TRADES AND CRAFTS ferrwn, i.e. Boniface (p. 34) the smith, lived in North- ampton in the twelfth century. This is an example of the French use of -on as an agential suffix. Another example is Old Fr. charton, or charreton, a waggoner, from the Norman form of which we have Carton. In Scriven, from Old Fr. escrivain (ecrivain), we have an isolated agential suffix. The English form is usually lengthened to Scrivener. In Ferrier, for farrier, the traditional spelling has prevailed over the pronuncia- tion, but we have the latter in Farrar. Ferrier some- times means ferryman, and Farrar has absorbed the common Mid. English nickname Fayrhayr. Aguilar means needle-maker, Fr. aiguille, but Pinner is more often official (p. 181). Cutler, Fr, coutelier, Old Fr. coutel, knife, and Spooner go together, but the fork is a modern fad. Poynter is another good example of the specialization of medieval crafts : the points were the metal tags by which the doublet and hose were con- nected. Hence the play on words when Falstaff is recounting his adventure with the men in buckram Fal. " Their points being broken - 11 Poww. " Down fell their hose/' (i Henry IV., ii, 4.) Latimer, Lafner sometimes means a worker in latt&n, a mixed metal of which the etymological origin is un- known. The Pardoner " Hadde a croys of latoun ful of stones " (A, 699)* For the change from ~n to -M we may compare Lorimer for Loriner, a bridle-maker, belonging ultimately to Lat. lorum, " the reyne of a brydle " (Cooper). But Latimer comes also from Latiner, a man skilled in Latin, hence an interpreter. Sir John Mandeville tells us that, on the way to Sinai^ ^Mem aHeweys fynden Latyneres to go with hem in the contrees," METAL WORKERS 173 The immortal Bowdler Is usually said to take Ms name from the art of puddling, or buddling, iron ore. But, as this process is comparatively modern, it is more likely that the name comes from the same verb in its older meaning of making impervious to water by means of clay. Monier and Minter are both connected with coining, the former through French and the latter from Anglo-Saxon, both going back to Lat. moneta* mint. Conner, i.e. coiner, is now generally swallowed up by the Irish Connor. LeadUtter is for Leadteater, The name Hamper is a contraction of hanapier, a maker of hanaps, i.e. goblets. Fr. hanap is from Old High Ger. hnapf (Napf), and shows the inability of French to pronounce initial hn- without inserting a vowel : cf . harangue from Old High Ger. hring. There is also a Mid. Eng. nap, cup, representing the cognate Anglo- Sax, hncep, so that the name Napper may sometimes be a doublet of Hamper, though it is more probably for Napier (p. 6) or Knapper (p. 107). The common noun hamper is from hanapier in a sense something like plate-basket. With metal-workers we may also put Furber or Frobisher, le. furbisher, of armour, etc. Peyser, from poise, scales, is official. Two occupative names of Celtic origin are Gow t a smith, as in The Pair Maid of Perth, and Caird, a tinker " The fellow had been originally a tinker or caird" (Heart oj Midlothian, ch. xlix.) A few more names, which fall into no particular category, may conclude the chapter. Hillyer or Hellier is an old name for a Thacker, or thatcher, of which we have the Dutch form in Dekker. It comes from Mid. Eng. Helen, to cover up. In Hillard, Hill- i On the curiously accidental history of this word see the Ro- mance of Words, ch, x. 174 TRADES AND CRAFTS yard we sometimes have the same name (cf . the vulgar scholard) , but these are more often local (p. 124) . Hellier also meant tiler, for the famous Wat is described as tiler, tegheler, and hellier. An Ashburner prepared wood-ash for the Bloomer (p. 153), and perhaps also for the Glaisher, or glass-maker, and Asher is best explained in the same way, for we do not, I think, add -er to tree-names. Apparent exceptions can be easily accounted for, e.g. Elmer is Anglo-Sax. Mfmaer, and Beecher is Anglo-Fr. bechur> digger (Fr. beche, spade). Neither Pitman nor Collier had their modern meaning of coal-miner. Pitman is local, of the same class as Bridgeman, Pullman, etc., and Collier meant a charcoal- burner, as in the famous ballad of Rauf Colyear, Not much coal was dug in the Middle Ages. Even in 1610 Camden speaks with disapproval, in his Britannia, of the inhabitants of Sherwood Forest who, with plenty of wood around them, persist in digging up " stinking pit-cole." Croker is for Crocker, a maker of crocks or pitchers. The Miller's guests only retired to bed "Whan that dronken al was in the crowke" (A, 4158) The spelling has affected the pronunciation, as in Sloper and Smoker (p. 41). Tinker is sometimes found as the frequentative Tinkler, a name traditionally due to his approach being heralded by the clatter of metal utensils " My bonny lass, 1 work on brass, A tinkler is my station,'* (BURNS, Jolly Beggars, Air 6.) The maker of saddle-trees was called Fewster, from Old Fr. fust (fut), Lat. fastis. This has sometimes SURNOM1NAL SNOBBISHNESS 175 given Foster, but the latter is more often for Forster, i.e. Forester "An horn he bar, the bawdryk was of grene, A forster was he soothly as I gesse." (A, 116.) The saddler himself was often called by his French name sellier, whence Sellar, but both this and Sellars are also local, at the cellars (p. 29). Pargefer means dauber, plasterer, from Old Fr. parjeter, to throw over. A Strak&r made the strakes, or tires, of wheels. A Stanger made stangs, i.e. poles, shafts, etc. The fine arts are represented by Limmer, for limner, a painter, an aphetic form of illuminer, and Tickner is perhaps from Dutch tekener, draughtsman, cognate with Eng. token, while the art of self-defence has given us the name Scrimgeoure, with a number of corruptions, including the local-looking Skrimshire. It is related to scrimmage and skirmish, and ulti- mately to Gr. schirmen, to fence, lit. to protect. The name was applied to a professional sword-player " Qe nul teigne escole de eskermerye ne de bokeler deins la citee," (Liber Albus.) A particularly idiotic form of snobbishness has sometimes led people to advance strange theories as to the origin of their names. Thus Turner has been explained as from la tour noire. Dr. Brewer, in his Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, 1 apparently desirous of dissociating himself from malt liquor, observes that " Very few ancient names are the names of trades. ... A few examples of a more scientific derivation will suffice for a hint : Brewer. This name, which exists in France as Bruhidre and Brugere, is not derived from the Saxon "briwan (to brew), but the French bruydre (heath), and is about tantamount to the German 1 Thirteenth edition, revised and corrected. 176 TRADES AND CRAFTS Plantagenet (broom plant). Miller is the old Norse melia, our mitt and maul, and means a mauler or fighter. Ringer is the Anglo-Saxon hring-gar (the mailed warrior). Tanner, German Thanger, Old German Dane-gaud t is the Dane- Goth. . . . This list might easily be extended." There is of course no reason why such a list should not be indefinitely extended, but the above excerpt is probably quite long enough to make the reader feel dizzy. The fact is that there is no getting away from a surname of this class, and the bearer must try to look on the brighter side of the tragedy. Brewer is occasionally an accommodated form of the French name Bruy&re or Labrayere, but is usually derived from an occupation which is the high-road to the House of Lords. The ancestor of any modern Barber may, like Salvation Yeo's father, have "exercised the mystery of a barber- surgeon/' which is getting near the learned prof essions. A Pottinger (see p. 155) looked after the soups, Fr. potage, but the name also represents Pothecary (apothecary), which had in early Scottish the aphetic forms poticar, potigar '* ' Pardon me/ said he, ' I am but a poor pottiwgar. Neverthe- less, I have been bred in Paris and learnt my humanities and my cursus medendi ' " (Fair Maid of Perth, ch. vii.). CHAPTER XIX HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS 44 Jacque, il me faut troubler ton somme ; Dans le village, un gros huissier R6de et court, suivi chi messier. C'est pour Timpdt, las ! mon pauvre homme. Ldve-toi, Jacque, leve-toi : Volci venir Fhuissier du roi/' BERANGER. GENERAL terms for what we now usually call a farmer are preserved in the surnames Bond (p. 146), whence the compound Husband, used both for the goodman of the house and in the modern sense, and Tillman. The labouring man was Day, from the same root as Ger. dienen. to serve. It persists in " dairy " and perhaps in the puzzling name Doubleday (? doing two men's work). A similar meaning is contained in the names Swain, Hind, for earlier Hine (p. 35), Tasker> Mann. But a Wager was a mercenary soldier. The mower has given us the names Mather (cL aftermath), and Mawer, while Fenner is sometimes for Old Fr. fenem, haymaker (Lat. fcenum, hay). For mower we also find the latinized messor, whence Messer. Whether the Ridler l and the Sivier made, or used, riddles and sieves can hardly be decided. With the i Riddle is the usual word for sieve in the Midlands. Hence the phrase " riddled with holes, or wounds." 13 *77 178 HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS Wenman, who drove the wain, we may mention the Leader or Loader. The verbs ' ' lead " and " load " are etymologically the same, and in the Midlands people talk of ''leading/' i.e. carting, coal. But these names could also come from residence near an artificial water- course (p. 129). Beecher has already been explained (p. 174), and Showier is formed in the same way from dialect showl, a shovel " ' I/ said the owl, ' With my spade and showl. 1 " To the variants of the Miller (p. 225) maybe added Mulliner, from Old French. Tedder means a man who teds, i.e. spreads, hay, the origin of the word being Scandinavian " I teede hey, I toume it afore it is made in coclces, je jene" (Palsgrave.) But the greater number of surnames drawn from rural occupations are connected with the care of animals. We find names of this class in three forms, exemplified by Cottman, Goater, Shepherd, and it seems likely that the endings -er and -erd have sometimes been interchanged, e.g. that Goater may stand for goat-herd, Cafaer for calf-herd, and Nutter sometimes for northern nowt~herd t representing the dialect neat- herd. The compounds of herd include Bullard, Cal~ vert, Cottard, Coward, for cow-herd, not of course to be confused with the common noun coward (Fr. couard, a derivative of Lat. cauda, tail), Swart, ewe- herd, but also a Norman spelling of Edward, Geldard, Goddard, sometimes for goat-herd, Hoggart, often con- fused with the local Hogarth (p. 124), Seward, for sow- herd, or for the historic Siward, Stobart, dialect stob, a- BUMBLEDOM 179 bull, Stodaft, Mid. Eng. stot, meaning both a bullock and a nag. Chaucer tells us that " This reve sat upon a ful good stot*' (A, 615). Stoddart is naturally confused with Studdart, stud- herd, stud being cognate with Ger. Stute, mare. We also have Swinnevt, and lastly Weatherhead, sometimes a perversion of wether-herd, though usually a nickname, sheep's head. The man in charge of the tups, or rains, was called Tupman or Tupper, the latter standing sometimes for tup-herd, just as we have the imitative Stutter for Stodart or Stitddart. We have also Tripper from trip, a dialect word for flock, probably related to troop. Another general term for a herdsman was Looker, whence Luker. I have headed this chapter " Hodge and his Friends/' but as a matter of strict truth he had none, except the " poure Persone," the most radiant figure in Chaucer's pageant. But his enemies were innumerable. Be- ranger's lines impress one less than the uncouth "Song of the Husbandman " (temp. Edward I.), in which we find the woes of poor Hodge incorporated in the persons of the hayward, the bailif, the wodeward, the budel and his cache? eles (catchpoles) " For ever the furthe peni mot (must) to the kynge." The bailiff has already been mentioned (p. 45). The bitdel, or beadle, has given us several surnames. We have the word in two forms, from Anglo-Sax, tiytel, belonging to the verb to bid, whence the names Biddh and Buddie, and from Old Fr. bedel (bedeau), whence Beadle and its variants. The animal is probably extinct under his original name, but modern democracy is doing its best to provide him with an army of i8o HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS successors. The " beadle " group of names has been confused with. Bithett, Welsh Ap Ithei Names in -ward are rather numerous, and, as they mostly come from the titles of rural officials and are often confused with compounds of -herd, they are all put together here. The simple Ward, cognate with Fr. garde, is one of our commonest surnames* Like its derivative Warden it had a very wide range of meanings. The antiquity of the office of church-warden is shown by the existence of the sur- name Churchward, Sometimes the surname comes from the abstract or local sense, d& la warde. As the suffix -weard occurs very frequently in Anglo- Saxon personal names, it is not always possible to say whether a surname is essentially occupative or not, e.g. whether Durward is rather " door- ward " or for Anglo- Sax. Deorweard. Howard, which is phonetically Old Fr. Huard, is sometimes also for Harward or Haward (Hereward), or for Hay ward. It has no doubt inter- changed with the local Howarth, Naworth. Owing to the loss of w- in f he second part of a word (see p. 39), -ward and -herd often fall together, e.g. Millard for Milward, and Woodard found in Mid. Eng- lish as both wode-ward and wode-hird. Hay ward belongs to hay, hedge, enclosure (p. 124), from which we also get Nayman. The same functionary has given the name HayUttle t a compound of beadle. Burward and Burrard may represent the once familiar office of bear-ward; cf. Berman. I had a schoolfellow called Lateward, apparently the man in charge of the lade or leet (p, 129), Medward is for mead-ward. The name Stewart or Stuart became royal with Walter the Steward of Scot- land, who married Marjorie Bruce in 1315. It stands for sty-ward, where sty means pen, not necessarily ITINERANT MERCHANTS 181 limited to pigs. Like most official titles, it has had its ups and downs, with the result that its present meaning ranges from a high officer of the crown to the sympa- thetic concomitant of a rough crossing. The Reeve, Anglo-Sax, ge-refa, was in Chaucer a kind of land agent, but the name was also applied to local officials, as in port-reeve, shire-reeve. It is the same as Grieve, also originally official, but used in Scotland of a land steward " He has got a ploughman from Scotland who acts as grieve" (Scott, Diary, 1814.) This may be one source of the names Graves and Greaves. The name Woodruff, Woodroffe is too common to be referred to the plant woodruff, and the fact that the male and female of a species of sand-piper are called the ruff and reeve suggests that Woodruff may have some relation to wood-reeve. It is at any rate a curious coincidence that the German name for the plant is Waldmeister, wood-master. Another official surname especially connected with country life is Finder, also found as Pinner, Pender, Penner, Ponder and Poynder, the man in charge of the pound or pinfold ; cf . Parker, the custodian of a park, of which the Pattiser or Pallister made the palings. The itinerant dealer was usually called by a name suggesting the pack which he carried. Thus Badger, Kidder t Kiddier, Pedder, now pedlar, are from bag, kid, related to kit, and the obsolete ped, basket ; cf . Leapef, p. 152. The badger, who dealt especially in com, was unpopular with the rural population, and it is possible that his name was given to the stealthy animal formerly called the bawson (p. 8, n.} } brock or gray (p. 225). That Badgzr is a nickname taken from the animal is i8a HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS chronologically improbable, as the word is first re- corded in 1523 (New English Dictionary) . To the above names may be added Cremer, Cramer, a huckster with a stall in the market, but this surname is some- times of modern introduction, from its German cognate Kramer, now generally used for a grocer. Packman, Pakeman, and Paxman belong more probably to the font-name Pack (p. 89), which also appears in Paxon, either Pack's son, or for the local Paxton. The name Hawker does not belong to this group. Nowadays a hawker is a pedlar, and it has been assumed, without sufficient evidence, that the word is of the same origin as huckster. The Mid. Eng. le haaeker or haukere (1273) is quite plainly connected with hawk, and the name may have been applied either to a Falconer, Faulkner, or to a dealer in hawks. As we know that itinerant vendors of hawks travelled from castle to castle, it is quite possible that our modern hawker is an extended use of the same name. Nor is the name Coster to be referred to costermonger, originally a dealer in costards, i.e. apples. It is sometimes for Mid. Eng. costard (cf . such names as Cherry and Plumb), but may also represent Port, da Costa and Gen Roster, both of which are found in early lists of Protestant refugees. Jagger was a north-country name for a man who worked draught-horses for hire. Mr. Hardy's novel Under the Greenwood Tree opens with " the Tranter's party. 1 ' A carrier is still a " tranter " in Wessex. In Medieval Latin he was called travetarius, a word apparently connected with Lat. transvehere, to transport. CHAPTER XX OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC "Big fleas have little fleas Upon tlieir backs to bite 'em ; Little fleas have smaller fleas, And so ad infinitum." ANON. IT is a well-known fact that official nomenclature largely reflects the simple housekeeping of early times, and that many titles, now of great dignity, were origin- ally associated with rather lowly duties. We have seen an example in Stewart. Another is Chamberlain. Hence surnames drawn from this class are susceptible of very varied interpretation. A Chancellor was origin- ally a man in charge of a chancel, or grating, Lat. cancelli. In Mid. English it is usually glossed scriba, while it is now limited to very high judicial or political office. Bailey, as we have seen (p. 45), has also a wide range of meanings, the ground idea being that of care-taker. Cotgrave explains Old Fr. mareschal (marSchal) as *' A mar shall of a kingdome, or of a camp (an honourable place) ; also, a blacksmith ; also, a farrier, horse-leech, or horse-smith ; also, a harbinger/' l which gives a considerable choice of origins to any modern Marshall or MaskelL Another very vague term is sergeant, whence our Sargent. Its oldest meaning is * I a quartermaster. See Romance of Words, ch. vii, i&j OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC servant, Lat. Servians, servient-. Cotgrave defines sergent as " A sergeant, officer, catchpole, pursuyvant, apparitor ; also (in Old Fr.) a footman, or souldier that serves on foot." Probably catchpole was the commonest meaning " Sargeauntes, katche -pollys, and somners " (Cocke Layettes Bate). The administration of justice occupied a horde of officials, from the Justice down to the Catchpole. The official title Judge is rarely found, and this surname is usually from the female name Judge, which, like Jug, was used for Judith, and later for Jane " Jannette, Judge, Jennie ; a woman's name " (Cotgrave). The names Judson and Juxon sometimes belong to these. Catchpole has nothing to do with poles or polls* It is a Picard cache-poule (chasse-poule), col- lector of poultry in default of money. Another name for judge was Dempster, the pronouncer of doom, a title which still exists in the Isle of Man. We also find Deemef " Demar, judicator" (Prompt. Paro.)* Mayo? is a learned spelling of Mair, Fr. maire, Lat. major, but Major, which looks like its latinized form, Is perhaps imitative for the Old French personal name Mauger. Bishop Mauger of Worcester pronounced the interdict in 1208, and the surname still exists, Gaylor, Galer, is the Norman pronunciation of gaoler 11 And Palamon, ttds woful prisoner, As was Ms wone, bi leve of his gayler t Was risen" (A, 1064). Usher is Fr. huissier, door-keeper, Fr. huis, door, Lat. ostium. I conjecture that Lusher is the French THE HOUSEHOLD 185 name Lhuissier, and that Lush is local, for Old Fr. le huis ; cf. Laporte. Wait, coiruptly Weight, now used only of a Christmas minstrel, was once a watch- man. It is a dialect form of Old Fr. gaite, cognate with watch. The older sense survives in the expres- sion " to lie in wait." Gate is the same name, when not local (p. 124). The Todhuntef, or fox-hunter (p. 225), was an official whose duty was to exterminate the animal now so carefully preserved. Warner is often for Warrener. The Grosvenor (gros veneur), great hunter, was a royal servant. Bannerman is found latinized as Penninger (p. 155). Herald may be official or from Harold (p. 69), the derivation being in any case the same. Toller means a collector of tolls. Cocke Lorelle speaks of these officials as " false Towlers." Connected with administration is the name Mainprice, lit. taken by hand, used both for a surety and a man out on bail '* Maynprysyd, or mempyysyd, marrucaptas, fideijussus " (Prompt. Parv.); and Shwety also exists. The individual bigwig had a very large retinue, the members of which appear to have held very strongly to the theory of one man, one job. The Nurse, or Norris, Fr. nourrice, was apparently debarred from rocking the cradle. This was the duty of the rocker " To the norice and rokker of the same lord, 255. 8*?." (Household Accounts of Elizabeth of York, March, 1503), from whom Mr. Roker, chief turnkey at the Fleet in Mr, Pickwick's time, may have sprung The Cook was assisted by the Baster and Easier, or turnspit, the latter from Old Fr. hastille, spit, dim. of Lat. hasta, spear. The Chandler was a servant as well as a manufacturer. 186 OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC A Trotter and a Massinger, i.e. messenger, were perhaps much the same thing. Wardroper is of course wardrobe keeper, but Chaucer uses war dr ope (B. 1762) in the sense which Fr. garde-role now usually has. The Lavender, Launder or Lander saw to the washing. Napier, from Fr, nappe, cloth, meant the servant who looked after the napery. The martial sound with which this distinguished name strikes a modern ear is due to historical association, assisted, as I have some- where read, by its riming with rapier \ The water- supply was in charge of the Ewer. The provisioning of the great house was the work of the Lardner, Fr. lard, bacon, the Panter, or Pantler, who was, at least etymologically, responsible for bread, and the Cator (p. 33) and Spencer (p. 33), whose names, though ot opposite meaning, buyer and spender, come to very much the same thing. Spence is still the north- country word for pantry, and is used by Tennyson in the sense of refectory "Blufl Harry broke into the spence And turn'd the cowls adrift/' (The Talking Oaft, I. 47.) Purser, now used in connection with ships only, was also a medieval form of bursar, and every castle and monastery had its almoner, now Amner. Here also belongs Carver. In Iver Church (Bucks) is a tablet to Lady Mary Salter with a poetic tribute to her husband " Full forty years a carver to two kings." As the importance of the horse led to the social eleva- tion of the marshal and constable (p. 45), so the hengstman, now henchman, became his master's right- hand man. The first element is Anglo-Sax, hengest, stallion, and its most usual suroominal forms are THE HOUSEHOLD 187 man and Hinxman. Historians now regard Hengist and Horsa, stallion and mare, as nicknames assumed by Jutish braves on tlie war-path. Sumpter } Old FT. sommetier, from somme, burden, was used both of a packtiorse and its driver, its interpretation in King Leaf being a matter of dispute " Return with her ? Persuade me rather to be slave and sumpter To this detested groom" (Lear, ii, 4). As a surname it probably means the driver, Medieval Lat. sumetanus. Among those who ministered to the great man's pleasures we must probably reckon Spelman, Speller, Spillman, Spilhr, from Mid. Eng, spel, a speech, narrative, but proof of this is lacking " Now holde your mouth, par charitee, Bothe knyght and lady free, And herkneth to my spells " (B, 2081), The cognate Spielmann, lit. Player,was used in Medieval German of a wandering minstrel. The poet is now Rymer or Rimmer, while Trover, Fr. tmivere, a poet, minstrel, lit. finder, has been confused with Trower, for Thrower, a name connected with weaving. Even the jester has come down to us as Patch, a name given regularly to this member of the household in allusion to his motley attire, Shylock applies it to Launcelot " The patch is kiad enough ; but a huge feeder." (Merchant of Venice , ii, 5.) But the name has another origin (p. 89), Butter and Cocker are names taken from the fine old English sports of bull-baiting and cock-fighting. Two very humble members of the parasitic class 188 OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC have given the names Bidder and Maunder, both meaning beggar. The first conies from Mid, Eng, bidden, to ask. Piers Plowman speaks of " bidderes and beggers." Maunder is perhaps connected with Old Fr. quemander " Quemander, or caimander, to beg ; or goe a begging ; to beg from doore to doore " (Cotgrave), but it may mean a maker of "maunds/' i.e, baskets. A Beadman spent his time in praying for his bene- factor. A medieval underling writing to his superior often signs himself " your servant and bedesman! 3 CHAPTER XXI OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL " Here is Wyli Wyly the myl pecker, And Patrick Pevysshe heerbeter, With lusty Hary Hangeman, Nexte house to Robyn Renawaye ; Also Hycke Crokenec the rope maker, And Steven Mesyllmouthe muskyll taker." (Cocke Lorelles Bote. 1 ) EVERY family name Is etymologically a nickname, i.e. an eke-name, intended to give that auxiliary informa- tion which helps in identification. But writers on surnames have generally made a special class of those epithets which were originally conferred on the bearer in connection with some characteristic feature, phy- sical or moral, or some adjunct, often of the most trifling description, with which his personality was associated. Of nicknames, as of other things, it may be said that there is nothing new under the sun. Ovidius Naso might have received his as a, schoolboy, and Moss cum naso, whom we find In Suffolk in 1184, lives on as " Nosey Moss " in Whitechapel Some of our nicknames occur as personal names In Anglo- Saxon times (p. 71), but as surnames they are seldom to be traced back to that period, for the simple reason 1 This humorous poem, inspired by Sebastian Brandt's Narren~ scMff, known in England in Barclay's translation, was printed early in the reign of Henry VIII. It contains the fullest list we have of old trade-names, 189 190 OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL that such names were not hereditary. An Anglo- Saxon might be named Wwlf, but his son would bear another name, while our modern Wolfe does not usually go farther back than some Ranulf U wolf of the thir- teenth or fourteenth century. This is of course stating the case broadly, because the personal name Wolf also persisted and became in some cases a surname. In this and the following chapters I do not generally attempt to distinguish between such double origins, Nicknames are formed in very many ways, but the two largest classes are sobriquets taken from the names of animals, e.g. Hogg, or from adjectives, either alone or accompanied by a noun, e.g. Dear, Goodfellow, Each of these classes requires a chapter to itself, while here we may deal with the smaller groups. Some writers have attempted to explain all apparent nicknames as popular perversions of surnames belong- ing to the other three classes. As the reader will already have noticed, such perversions are extremely common, but it is a mistake to try to account for obvious nicknames in this way. Any of us who retain a vivid recollection of early days can call to mind nicknames of the most fantastic kind, and in some cases of the most apparently impossible formation, which stuck to their possessors all through school-life. A very simple test fof the genuineness of a nickname is a comparison with other languages. Camden says that Drinkwater Is a corruption of Derwentwater. The incorrectness of this guess is shown by the existence as surnames of Fr. Boilem, It. Bevilacqua, and Get. Trinkwasser, It is in fact a perfectly natural nick- name for a medieval eccentric, the more normal attitude being represented by Roger Beyvin (boi-vin), who died in London in 1277. FOREIGN NICKNAMES tgi Corresponding to our Goodday, we find Ger. Gutentag and Fr. Bowfow. The latter has been explained as from a popular form of George, but the English and German names show that the explanation is unneces- sary. With Dry we may compare Fr. Lesec and Ger. Dtirr, with Garlick Ger. Knoblauch (p. 155), and with Shakespeare Ger. Schuttespeer* Luck is both for Luke and Luick (Liege, p. 100), but Rosa Bonheur and the composer Gluck certify it also as a nickname. Merry- weather is like Fr. Bontemps, and Littleboy appears in the Paris Directory as Pefitgas, gas being the same as gars, the old nominative (p. 9, n.) of garcon " Gars, a lad, boy, stripling, youth, yonker " (Cotgrave). Bardsley explains Twentyman as an imitative corrup- tion of twinter~man t the man in charge of the twinters, two-year-old colts. This may be so, but there is a German confectioner in Hampstead called Zwanziger, and there are Parisians named Vingtain. Lover is confirmed by the French surnames Amani and La- moureux, and Wellbeloved by Bienaime. Allways may be the literal equivalent of the French name Pariout. On the other hand, the name Praisegod Barebones has been wrongly fixed on an individual whose real name was Barbon or Barborne. It may seem strange that the nickname, conferred essentially on the individual, and often of a very offensive character, should have persisted and become hereditary. But schoolboys know that, in the case of an unpleasant nickname, the more you try to pull it off, the more it sticks the faster. Malapert and LehUeux are still well represented in the Paris Directory, Many objectionable nicknames have, however, disappeared, or have been so modified as to "become inoffensive. ig2 OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL Sometimes such disappearance has resulted from the depreciation, in the meaning of a word, e.g. U lewd, the layman, the unlettered, was once as common as its opposite U learned,, whence the name Lamed. But many uncomplimentary names are no longer objected to because their owners do not know their earlier meanings. A famous hymn-writer of the eighteenth century bore all unconsciously a surname that would almost have made Rabelais blush. Drinkdregs, Drunkard, Sourale, Sparewater, Sweatinbed, etc. have gone, but we still have Lusk " Falourdin, a luske, lowt, lurden, a iubberlie sloven, heavie sot, lumpish koydon " (Cotgrave) and many other names which can hardly have gratified their original possessors. A very interesting group of surnames consists of those which indicate degrees of kinship or have to do with the relations existing between individuals. We find both Master and Mann, united in Masterman, meaning the man in the service of one locally known as the master. With this we may compare Lady man, Priestman, etc. But Mann is often of local origin* from the Isle of Man. In some cases such names are usually found with the patronymic -s, e.g. Masters, Fellows, while in others this is regularly absent, e.g. Guest, Friend. The latter name is sometimes a corrup- tion of Mid. Eng. fremed, stranger, cognate with Ger. fremd, so that opposite terms, which we find regularly contrasted in Mid. Eng. " frend and fremed," have become absorbed in one surname. The frequent occurrence of Fellows is due to its being sometimes for the local Fallows. From Mid. Eng. fere, a companion, connected with far en, to travel, we get Litthfair and KINSHIP 193 Play fair. In Wyclif J s Bible we read that Jephthah's daughter " Whanne sche hadde go with Mr felowis and pkiferis, sch biwept hir maydynhed in the hillis " (Judges xi. 38). Springett Is for springald, and Arlett is Mid. Eng. harlot, fellow, rascal, a word which has changed its gender and meaning "He was a gentil harlot and a kynde, A betre felawe sholde men noght fynde," (A, 647-) In surnames taken from words indicating family re- lationship we come across some survivals of terms no longer used, or occurring only in rustic dialect. The Mid. Eng. erne, uncle, cognate with Ger. Oheim, has given Eames. In Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, the heroine addresses Pandarus as " uncle dere " and " uncle mine/' but also uses the older word " ' In good feith, em,' quod she, ' that Hketh me ' "(ii. 162) ; and the word is used more than once by Scott " Didna his erne die . , , wi j the name of the Bluidy Mackenzie ? " (Heart of Midlothian, ch. xii.) It is also one of the sources of Empson, which thus cor- responds to Cousins or Cozens. In Neame we have a prosthetic n- due to the frequent occurrence of min erne (cf. the Shakespearean nuncle, Lear, i. 4). The names derived from cousin have been reinforced by those from Cuss, i.e. Constant or Constance (p. 95). Thus Cussens is from the Mid. English dim* Cussin. Anglo-Sax, nefa, whence Mid. Eng, neve, 1 neave, is cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. nepos. This 1 In all books on surnames that I have come across this is re- ferred to Old Fr. le neve. There is no such word in Old French, which has nom. nis t acc neveu, 14 I 9 4 OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL is now replaced as a common noun by the French word nephew, but It survives in the surname Neave. It also meant in Mid. English a prodigal or parasite, as did also Lat. nepos " Neve, neverthryfte, or wastowre " (Prompt. Parv.). It is likely that Nevison and Nevinson are sometimes derivatives of this word* Child was sometimes used in the special sense of youth of gentle blood, or young knight ; cf , Childe Harold and Childe Rowland (Lear, iii. 4) . But the more general meaning may be assumed in its compounds, of which the most interesting is Leif child, dear-child, a fairly common name in Anglo-Saxon. The corres- ponding Faunt* whence FauntUroy (p. 146), is now rare. Another word, now only used in dialect or by affectation, is "bairn/' a frequent source of the very common surname Barnes ; cl Fairbairn and Goodbairn, often perverted to Fairburn, Goodburn, Goodban. Barn- father is about equivalent to Lat. paterfamilias, but Pennefather is an old nickname for a miser " Caqueduc, a niggard, micher, miser, scrape-good, pinch-penny, penny- father ; a covetous and greedy wretch " (Cotgrave). The name Bastard was once considered no disgrace if the dishonour came from a noble source, and several great medieval warriors bore this sobriquet. With this we may compare Leman or Lemon, Mid. Eng, leof-man, dear man, beloved, and Paramor, FT. par amour, an example of an adverbial phrase that has become a noun. This expression, used oi lawful love in Old French, in the stock phrase " aimer une belle dame par amour" had already an evil meaning by Chaucer's time *'My fourths housbonde was a revelour, This is to seyn, he hadde a paramour " (D, 453), KINSHIP 195 With these names we may put Drewry or Drwy, sweetheart, from the Old French abstract druerie, of Germanic origin and cognate with true "For certeynly no such, beeste To be loved is not worthy, Or bere the name of druerie." (Romaunt of the Rose, 5062,) Suckling is a nickname applied to a helpless person ; cf. Littlechild and ff milksop/' which still exists, though rare, in the forms Milsopp and Mellsop. The heir survives as Ayre and Eyre. Batchelor, the origin of which is one of the etymological problems yet un- solved, had in Old French and Mid. English also the meaning of young warrior or squire. Chaucer's Squier is described as " A lovyere and a lusty bachehr" (A, 80). May, maiden, whence Mildmay, is used by Chaucer for the Holy Virgin "Now, lady bright, to whom alle woful cryen, Thow glorie of wommanhede, thow faire may, Thow haven of refut, brighte sterre of day*' (B, 850). This is the same word as Mid. Eng. tnai, relative, cog- nate with maid and Gaelic Mac- (p> 66)* A form of it survives in the Nottingham name Watmough and per- haps in Hickmott " Mow, housbandys sister or syster In law " (Prompt. Parv,). I imagine that William Echemannesmwi, who owed the Treasury a mark in 1182, was one of the sponging fraternity, Virgoe, a latinization of Virgin, is perhaps due to a shop-sign. Rigmaidew, explained by Lower as *'a romping girl/' is local, from a place in Westmorland. Richard de Riggemayden was living in Lancashire in 196 OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL 1307. With this group of names we may put Gossip, originally a god-parent, lit. related in God, from Mid. Eng. sib, kin, With names like Farebrother, Goodfellow, we may compare some of French origin such as Bonser (bon sire), Bonamy, and Bellamy "Thou beel amy, thou pardoner, he sayde, Telle us som myrth, or japes, right anon. 1 ' (B, 318,) Beldam (belle dame), originally a complimentary name for grandmother or grandam, has become uncompli- mentary in meaning First Witch. "Why, how now, Hecate! you look angerly." Hecate. "Have I not reason, beldams as you are, Saucy and overbold ? " (Macbeth, iii, 5), From the corresponding Old Fr. bel-sire } beau-sire, we have Bewsher, Bowser, and the Picard form Belcher "The great belsire, the grandsire, sire, and sonne, Lie here interred under this grave stone," (Weever, Ancient Funeral Monuments ;) Relationship was often expressed by the use of French words, so that for son-in-law we find Gender, Ginder, corresponding to Fr. Legendre. Fitch, usually an, animal nickname (p. 225), is occasionally for U fiz, the son, which also survives as Pitz, Goodson f from the personal name Good (p. 4), is sometimes registered as Fiz Deu< Cf. Fr. Lefilleul, Le. the godson. A possible derivative of the name May (p. 195) is Ivimey. Holly and Ivy were the names of characters in Christmas games, and an old rime says " Holy and his mery men, they dawnsyn and they syng, Ivy and hur may dins, they wepen and they wryng." If Ivimey is from this source, the same origin must ABSTRACTS 197 sometimes be allowed to Holliman (p. 6). This con- jecture x has in its favour the fact that many of our surnames are undoubtedly derived from characters assumed in dramatic performances and popular festivi- ties. To this class belong many surnames which have the form of abstract nouns, e.g. Charity, Verity, Virtue, Vice. Of similar origin are perhaps Bliss, Chance, Luck, and Goodluck ; cf . Bonaventure. Love, Luff, occurs generally as a personal name, hence the dim. Lufkins, but it is sometimes a nickname. Lovell, Lovett, more often mean little wolf. Both Louvef and Louveau are common French surnames. The name Lovell, in the wolf sense, was often applied to a dog, as in the famous couplet "The ratte, the catte, and Lovell, our dogge Rule all England under the hogge," for which William Collingborne was executed in 1484. Lowell is a variant of Lovell. But many apparent abstract names are due to folk- etymology, e.g. Marriage is local, Old Fr. marage, marsh, and Wedlock is imitative for Wedlake; cf. Mortlock for Mortlake and perhaps Diplock for deep- lake. Creed is the Anglo-Saxon personal name Creda. Revel, a common French surname, is a personal name of obscure origin. Want is the Mid. Eng. wont, mole, whence Wontner, mole-catcher. It is difficult to see how such names as Warr f Battle, and Conquest came into existence. The former, found as de la warre, is no doubt sometimes local (p. 129), and Battle is a dim. of Bat (p. 57). But de la batayle is also a common entry, and Laguerre and Labataille are common French surnames. i Probably a mythu See my Surnam&s t p. 197. 198 OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL A nickname was often conferred in connection with some external object regularly associated with the individual. Names taken from shop-signs really be- long to this class. Corresponding to our Hood l we have Fr. C apron (chaperon}. Burdon, FT. bourdon, meant a staff, especially a pilgrim's staff. Daunger is described as having " In Ms honde a gret burdoun" (Romaunt of the Rose, 3401). But the name Burdon is also local. Bracegirdle, i.e. breeks-girdle, must have been the nickname of one who wore a gorgeous belt. It is a curious fact that this name is chiefly found in the same region (Cheshire) as the somewhat similar Broadbelt. The Sussex name Quaife represents the Norman pronunciation of coif, More usually an adjective enters into such combina- tions. With the historic Curthose, Longsword, Strong- bow we may compare Shorthouse, a perversion of short- hose, Longstaff, Horlock (hoar), Silverlock, Whitlock, etc. Whitehouse is usually of local origin, but has also absorbed the medieval names WMtehose and White-hawse, the latter from Mid. Eng. hawse, neck. Woollard may be the Anglo-Saxon personal name Wulfweard, but is more probably from woolward, i.e. without linen, a costume assumed as a sign of peni- tence ** Wolwarde, without any lynixen nexte ones body, sans chemyse. (Palsgrave.) The three names Medley, Medlicott, and Motley go together, though all three of them may be local (the mid-lea, the middle-cot, and the moat4ea). Medley mixed, is the Anglo-French past participle of Old Fr, * Hood may also be for Htid (p. 3), but the garment is made into a personal name ia Little Red Ridinghood, who is called in French U petit Chaferon COSTUME 199 mesler (mUer). Motley is of unknown origin, but it was not necessarily a fool's dress "A marchant was ther with a forked berd, In mottelye, and hye on horse he sat, Upon his heed a Flaundryssh bevere hat 1 * (A, 270). So also the Serjeant of the Law was distinguished by his, for the period, plain dress " He rood but hoomly in a medlee cote " (A, 328). Gildersleeve is now rare in England, though it still flourishes in the United States. 1 Names like Beard, Chinn, Tooth were conferred because of some prominent feature. In Anglo-French 1 We have several instances of this phenomenon. A familiar example is Lippincott, a surname of local origin (Devonshire). But "Bardsley's inclusion of American statistics is often mis- leading. It is a well-known fact that the foreign names of immi- grants are regularly assimilated to English forms in the United States. In some cases, such as Cook for Koch, Cope (p. 107) for Kopf, Stout (p. 209) for Stolz or Stultz, the change is etymologically justified. But in other cases, such as- Tallman for Thalmann, dale- man, Trout for Traut, faithful, the resemblance is accidental. Beam and Chestnut, common in the States but very rare in England, re- present an imitative form of Bohm or Behm, Bohemian, and a translation of KesUribaum, chestnut tree, both Jewish names. The Becks and Bowmans of New York outnumber those of London by about five to one, the first being for Beck, baker (p. 149), and the second for Baumann, equivalent to Bauer, farmer. Bardsley ex- plains the common American name Arrison by the fact that there are Cockneys in America. It comes of course from Arend, a Dutch name related to Arnold. " A remarkable record in changes of surname was cited some years ago by an American correspondent of Notes and Queries. * The changes which befell a resident of New Orleans were that when he moved from an American quarter to a German neighbourhood his name of Flint became Feuerstein, which for convenience was short- ened to Stein. Upon his removal to a French district he was re- christened Pierre. Hence upon his return to an English neighbour- hood he was translated into Peters, and Ms first neighbours were surprised and puzzled to find Flint turned Peters/ J> (Daily Chronicle, April 4, 19134 200 OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL we find Gernon, moustache, now corrupted to Garn- ham, and also at gernon, with the moustache, which has "become Algernon. But we have already seen (p. 125) that some names which appear to belong to this class are of local origin. So also Tongue is derived from one of several places named Tong or Tonge, though the ultimate origin is perhaps in some cases the same, a "tongue" of land. Quartermain is for Quatre-mains, perhaps bestowed on a very acquisitive person ; Joscius Quatre-buches, four mouths, and Roger Tunekes, two necks, were alive in the twelfth century ; and there is record of a Saracen champion named Quinze-paumes, though this is perhaps rather a measure of height. Cheek 1 conjecture to be for Chick. The odd-looking Kidney is apparently Irish. There is a rare name Poinde%ter appearing in French as Poingdestre, (t right fist." 1 I have seen it explained as from the heraldic term point dexter, but it is rather to be taken literally. I find Johannes cum pugno in 1184, and we can imagine that such a name may have been conferred on a medieval bruiser. There is also the possibility, considering the brutality of many old nicknames, that the bearer of the name had been judicially deprived of his right hand, a very common punishment, especially for striking a feudal superior. Thus Renaut de Montauban, finding that his unknown opponent is Charlemagne, exclaims " J'ai forfait le poing desire dent je Pai ades6 (struck)." We have some nicknames describing gait, e.g. Amller and Shaylor " I shayU t as a man or horse dotha that gotlie croked with Ms leggs, je vas esohoys " (Palsgrave) * Resident Poiiwarfs name appears to mean " square fist/* PHYSICAL FEATURES 201 and perhaps sometimes Trotter. If George Eliot had been a student of surnames she would hardly have named a heroine Nancy Lammiter, i.e. cripple " Though ye may think him a lamiter, yet, grippie for grippie, he'll make the bluid spin frae nnder yonr nails " (Black Dwarf, ch. xvii.). Pettigrew and Petti fer are of French origin, pied de grue (crane) and pied de fer. The former is the origin of the word pedigree, from a sign used in drawing genea- logical trees. The Buckinghamshire name Puddifoot or Puddephatt (Podefat, 1273) and the aristocratic Pauncefote are unsolved. The former may be a corruption of Pettifer, which occurs commonly, along with the intermediate Puddifer, In the same county. But the English Dialect Dictionary gives as an obsolete Northantsword the adjective puddy, stumpy, pudgy, applied especially to hands, fingers, etc., and Pudito (puddy toe) occurs as a surname in the Hundred Rolls. As for Pauncefote, I believe it simply means what it appears to, viz. " belly-foot/' a curious formation, though not without parallels, among obsolete rustic nicknames. If these two conjectures are correct, both Puddifoot and Pauncefote may be almost literal equivalents of the Greek (Edipus, ie. " swell-foot" In other languages as well as English we find money nicknames. It is easy to understand how some of these come into existence, e.g. that Pierce Pennilesse was the opposite of Thomas Thousandpound, whose name occurs c. 1300. With the latter we may com- pare Fr. Centlivre, the name of an English lady drama- tist of the eighteenth century. Moneypenny Is found in 1273 &sManipeni, and a Londoner named Manypeny died In 1348. The Money- is partly north country, partly imitative, Money Itself is usually pccupative 202 OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL or local (p. 165), and Shitting Is the Anglo-Saxon name Sailing. The oldest and commonest of such nick- names is the simple Penny, with which we may com- pare the German surname Pfennig and its compounds Barpfennig, Weisspfennig, etc. The early adoption of this coin-name as a personal name is due to the fact that the word was taken in the sense of money in general. We still speak of a rich man as " worth a pretty penny/' Hallmark is folk-etymology for the medieval Half-mark. Such medieval names as Pour-pence, Twenty-mark ,etc., probably now obsolete, are paralleled by Fr. Quatresous and Sixdenier, still to be found in the Paris Directory. It would be easy to form conjectures as to the various ways in which such names may have come into existence. To the same class must belong Besant, the name of a coin from Byzantium, its foreign origin giving it a dignity which is absent from the native Farthing and Halfpenny, though the latter, in one instance, was improved beyond recognition into MacAlpine.- There is also a small group of surnames derived from oaths or exclamations which by habitual use became associated with certain individuals. We know that monarchs had a special tendency to indulge in a favourite expletive. To Roger de Collerye we owe some information as to the imprecations preferred by four French kings in grete helth, crassus," It is cognate with Ger. frech, which now means impu- dent. Nott has already been mentioned (p. 16). Of the Yeoman we are told " A not hed hadde he, with a broun visage." (A, 109.) DISGUISED SPELLINGS 211 Stark, cognate with starch, now usually means stiff, rather than strong "I feele my lymes stark and suffisauat To do al that a man bilongeth to." (E, 1458,) But Star k is also for an earlier Sterk (cf . Clark and Clerk), which represents Mid. Eng. stirk, a heifer. In the cow with the crumpled horn we have a derivative of Mid. Eng. crum, crooked, whence the names Crum and Crump. Ludwig's German Diet. (1715) explains krumm as " crump, crooked, wry/' The name Crook generally has the same meaning, the Ger. Krwwmbein corresponding to our Cmikshank or Crookshanks. It is possible that Glegg and Gleig are Mid. Eng. gleg, skilful, of Scand. origin. There are some adjectival surnames which are not immediately recognizable. Bolt, when not local (p. 133), is for bold, Leaf is imitative for lief, i.e. dear. Dear itself is of course hopelessly mixed up with Deer. The timorous-looking Fear is Fr. le fier, the proud or fierce. Skey is an old form of shy ; Bligh is for Blyth ; Hendy and Henty are related to handy, and had in Mid. English the sense of helpful, courteous " Oure hoost tlio spak, * A, sire, ye sliolde be fonde And custeys, as a man of youre estat.' ** (D, 1286.) For Savage we find also the archaic spelling Salvage (Lat. silvaticus) . Curtis is Norman Fr curteis (courtois). The adjective garish, now only poetical, but once con- monly applied to gaudiness in dress, has given Gerrish, Quaint, which has so many meanings intermediate between its etymological sense of known or familiar (Lat. cognitus) and its present sense of unusual or un- familiar, survives as Quint. But Coy is usually local. 212 ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES from Quy (Cambridgeshire), Orpwood is a corruption of Mid. Eng. orped, bold, warlike. Craske is an East Anglian word for fat, and Grouse is used in the north for sprightly, confident. To these we may add Ketch, Kedge, Gedge, from an East Anglian adjective meaning lively " Kygge, or joly, jocundus " (Prompt. Parv.) and Spragg, etymologically akin to Spry. Bmgg was once used for bold or brave, without any uncompli- mentary suggestion. The New English Dictionary quotes (c. 1310) from a lyric poem "That maketh us so brag and bolde And biddeth us ben blythe." Crease is a West-country word for squeamish, but the East Anglian name Creasey, Cressy, is usually for the local Kersey (Suffolk) . The only solution of Pratt is that it is Anglo-Sax, pratt, cunning, adopted early as a personal name, while Storr, of Scandinavian origin, means big, strong. It is cognate with Steer, a bull Devey and Dombey seem to be diminutive forms of deaf and dumb, still used in dialect in reference to persons thus afflicted. We find in French and German surnames corresponding to these very natural nick- names. Cf. Crombie from Crum (p. 211). A large proportion of our adjectival nicknames are of French origin. Le bel appears not only as Bell but also, through Picard, as Beal. Other examples are Boon, Bone, Bunn (bon), Grant (grand), Bass (bas) and its derivative Bassett, Dasent (decent), Follett and Folliott, dim, of fol (fou), mad, which also appears in the compound Foljambe, FulljameB. Mordaunt means biting. Power is generally Anglo-Fr. U pome (le FRENCH ADJECTIVES 213 pauvre) and Grace is for le gra$, the fat. Joliffe repre- sents the Old French form of joli "This Absolon, that jolif was and gay, Gooth with a sencer (censer) on the haEday." (A, 3339-) Prynne, now Pring, is Anglo-Fr. le prin, the first, from the Old French adjective which survives in pnntemps* Ci our name Prime and the French name Premier. The Old French adjective Gent, now replaced by gentil, generally means slender in Mid. English "Fair was this yonge wyf, and therwithai As any wezele Mr body gent and smal." (A, 3233 ) Petty and Pettit are variant forms of Fr. petit, small. In Prowse and Pr out we have the nominative and objective (see p. 9, n.) of an Old French adjective now repre- sented by pr eux and prude, generally thought to be related in some way to Lat. pro in prosum, and perhaps also the source of our Proud. Gross is of course Fr. le gros, but Grote represents Du. groot, great, probably unconnected with the French word. The Devonshire name Coffin, which is found in that county in the twelfth century, is the same as Caffyn, perhaps representing Fr. Chauvin^ bald, the name of the theologian whom we know better in the latinized form Calvin. Here belongs probably Shwd, Fr. ChauveL We also have the simple Chaffe, Old Fr. chauf (chauve), bald. Gaylard, sometimes made into the imitative Gaylord, is Fr. gaillard, brisk, lively " Gaittard he was as goldfynch in the shawe.** (A, 4367.) Especially common are colour nicknames, generally due to the complexion, but sometimes to the garb. As we have already seen (p. 149), Black and its variant 214 ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES Blake sometimes mean pale. Blagg Is the same word ; cf . Jagg for Jack. White has no doubt been reinforced by wight, valiant "Oil for one hour of Wallace wight Or well-skilled Bruce to rule the fight." (Marmwn, vi. 20.) As an epithet applied to the hair we often find Hoar; cf. Horlock. Redd is rare, the usual forms being the northern Reid, Reed, Read ; but we also have Rudd from Anglo-Sax, rud, whence ruddy and the name Ruddock, really a bird nickname, the redbreast. To these must be added Rudge, Fr. rouge, Rotise, Rush and Russ, Fr. roux, and Russell or Rowsell, Old Fr. roussel (Rousseau). The commonest nickname for a fair-haired person was Blunt, Blount, Fr. blond, with its dim. Blundell, but the true English name is Fairfax, from Anglo-Sax. feax, hair. The New English Dictionary quotes from the fifteenth century "Then they lowsyd hur fey re faxe, That was yelowe as the waxe." The adjective dun was once a regular name, like Dobbin or Dapple, for a cart-horse ; hence the name of the old rural sport " Dun in the mire " " If thou art dun we'll draw thee from the mire." . (Romeo and Juliet, i. 4.) It is possible that the name Dunn is sometimes due to this specific application of the word. The colour blue appears as Blew " At last he rose, and twitch'd his mantle blew : To-morrow to fresh woods and pastures new " (Lycidas, L 192) and earlier still as Blow ** Blak, "bio, grenysh, swartysh, reed." (House of Fame, iii. 557.) COLOUR NAMES 215 Other colour names of French origin are Morel, swarthy,like a Moor, also found as Murrell 1 ; and Burnett, Burnett, dims, of brun, brown. Chaucer speaks of "Datm 2 Burnel the asse" (B, 4502); " Daim Russel the fox " (B, 4524.) But both Burnett and Burnett may also be local from places ending in -hill and -head (p. 126), and Burnett is sometimes for Burnard. The same applies to Burrell, usually taken to be from Mid. Eng. borel, a rough material, Old Fr. bur el (bureau), also used metaphori- cally in the sense of plain, uneducated "And moore we seen of Cristes secree thynges Than burel folk, al though they weren kynges." (D, 1871.) The name can equally well be the local Burhill or Burwell. Murray is too common to be referred entirely to the Scottish name and is sometimes for murrey, dark red (Fr. mure, mulberry). It may also represent merry, in its variant form murie, which is Mid, English, and not, as might appear, Amurrican "His murie men comanded he To make hym bothe game and glee," (B, 2029.) Pook, of uncertain origin, is supposed to have been a dark russet colour. Bayard, a derivative of bay, was the name of several famous war-horses. Cf. Blank and Blanchard. The name Soar is from the Old French adjective sor } bright yellow. It is of Germanic origin and cognate with sere. The dim. Sorrel may be a colour name, but it was applied in 1 This, like Merrill, is sometimes from Muriel. * Lat. dominus; the masculine form of dame in Old French. 216 ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES venery to a buck In the third year, of course in refer- *ence to colour ; and some of our names, e.g. Brocket and Pnckett, 1 both applied to a two-year-old stag, must sometimes be referred to this important department of medieval language. Holofernes uses some of these terms in his idiotic verses " The preyful princess pierc'd and prick' d a pretty pleasing priket ; Some say a sore ; but not a sore, till now made sore with shooting. The dogs did yell ; put I to SQV&, then sorel jumps from thicket/ 8 (Love's Labour's Lost, iv, 2.) A few adjective nicknames of Celtic origin are so common in England that they may be included here. Such are the Welsh Gough, Goff, Gooch, G^itch J red, Gwynn and Wynne, white, Lloyd, grey, Sayce, Saxon, foreigner, Vaughan, small, and the Gaelic Bain, Bean, white, Boyd, Bowie, yellow-haired, Dow, Duff, black, Finn, fair, Glass, grey, Roy, Roe, red. From Cornish come Coad, old, and Couch, 1 red, while Bean is the Cor- nish for small, and Tyacke means a farmer. It is likely that both Begg and Moore owe something to the Gaelic adjectives for little and big, as in the well-known names of Callum Beg, Edward Waverley's gillie, and McCallum More. The Gaelic Bcgg is cognate with the Welsh Vaughan. Two other famous Highland nick- names which are very familiar in England are Cameron, crooked nose, and Campbell, wry mouth. With these may be mentioned the Irish Kennedy, ugly head, the name of the father of Brian Boru. 1 Both words are connected with the spiky young horns, Fr. broche, spit, being applied in venery to the pointed horns ol the second year, 2 Cognate with Welsh Gough, CHAPTER XXIII BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES "As I think 1 have already said, one of Umslopogaas' Zulu names was The Woodpecker." (HAGGARD, Allan Quatermain, ch. vii.) THE great majority of nicknames coming under the headings typified by Bird and Powell, Best, and Fish or Fisk (Scand.) are easily identified. But here, as every- where in the subject, pitfalls abound. The name Best itself is an example of a now misleading spelling re- tained for obvious reasons "First, on the wal was peynted a forest, In which ther dweUeth neither man nor best" (A, 1976.) We do not find exotic animals, nor even the beasts of heraldry, at all frequently, Leppard, leopard, is in some cases for the Ger. LieVhart; and Griffin, when not Welsh, should no doubt be included among inn- signs. Oliphant, i.e. elephant " For maystow surmotinten thise oli fannies in gretnesse or welghte of body " (Boece, 782) may be a genuine nickname, but Roland's ivory horn was also called by this name, and the surname may go back to some legendary connection of the same kind. Bear is not uncommon, captive bears being familiar to a period in which the title bear-ward is frequently met with. It is possible that Drake may sometimes 2i8 BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES represent Anglo-Sax, draca, dragon, rather than the bird, but the latter is unmistakable in Sheldrick, for sheldrake. As a rule, animal nicknames were taken rather from the domestic species with which the peasantry were familiar and whose habits would readily suggest comparisons, generally disparaging, with those of their neighbours. Bird names are especially common, and it does not need much imagination to see how readily and naturally a man might be nicknamed Hawke for his fierceness, Crowe from a gloomy aspect, or Nightingale for the gift of sweet song. Many of these surnames go back to words which are now either obsolete or found only in dialect. The peacock was once the Poe f an early loan from Lat. fiavo, or, more fully, Pocock " A sheaf of pocok arwes, bright and kene, Under his belt he bar ful thriftily." (A, 104,) The name Pay is another form of the same word. Coe } whence Hedgecoe, is an old name for the jackdaw " Cadow, or coo, or chogh (chough), monedula " (Prompt. Paw.) but may also stand for cow, as we find, in defiance of gender and sex, such entries as Robert le cow, William le vache. Those birds which have now assumed a font- name, such as Jack daw, Mag pie, of course occur with- out it as surnames, e.g. Daw and Pye "The thief the chough, and eek the j angel yng pye " (Parliament of Fowls, 305). The latter has a dim. Pyatt. RainUrd is a local name for the green woodpecker, but as an East- Anglian name it is most likely an imita- tive form of Fr. Rimbaud or Raimbaud, identical with BIRDS 219 Anglo-Sax. Regenbeald. Knott is the name of a bird which frequents the sea-shore and, mindful of Cnut's wisdom, retreats nimbly before the advancing surf "The 'knot that called was Canutes' bird of old." (Dray ton, Polyolbion, xxv. 368.) This historical connection is most probably due to folk-etymology. Titmus is of course for tit-mouse. Dialect names for the woodpecker survive in Speight, Speke, and Spick, Pick (p. 40), The same bird was also called woodwall "In many places were nyghtyngales, Alpes, fynches, and wodewales " (Romaunt of the Rose, 567) hence, in some cases, the name WoodalL The Alpe, or bullfinch, mentioned in the above lines, also survives as a surname. Dunnock and Pinnock are dialect names for the sparrow. It was called in Anglo-Norman muisson, whence Musson. Starling is a dim. of Mid. Eng. stare, which has itself given the surname Starr " The stare, that the counseyl can be-wrye." (Parliament of Fowls, 348.) Heron is the French form of the bird-name which was in English Herne *' I come from haunts of coot and hern" (Tennyson, The Brook, i i.) The Old French dim. heronceau also passed into English " I wol nat tellen of ^hir strange sewes (courses), Ne of Mr swannes, ne of hire heronsewes" (P. 67.) As a surname it has been assimilated to the local, and partly identical, Hearnshaw (p. no). Some com- mentators go to this word to explain Hamlet's use of handsaw * 220 BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES " I am but mad north-north-west : when the wind in southerly, I know a hawk from a handsaw'* (Hamlet, ii. 2). When the author's father was a boy in Suffolk eighty years ago, the local name for the bird was pronounced exactly like answer. Grew is Fr, grue, crane, Lat. gm$, gru-. Butter, Fr. butor, " a bittor " (Cotgrave), is a dialect name for the bittern, called a " butter-bump f ' by Tennyson's Northern Farmer (1. 31). Culver is Anglo-Sax, culfre, a pigeon " Columba, a culver, a dove " (Cooper) hence the local Culverhouse. Dove often becomes Duff. Gaunt is sometimes a dialect form of gannet, used in Lincolnshire of the crested grebe. Popjoy may have been applied to the successful archer who became king of the popinjay for the year. The derivation of the word, Old Fr. papegai, whence Mid. Eng. papejay "The briddes synge, it is no nay, The sparhawk and the papejay, That joye it was to heere" (B, 1956) Is obscure, though various forms of it are found in most of the European languages. In English it was applied not only to the parrot, but also to the green woodpecker. The London Directory form is Pobgee* With bird nicknames may be mentioned Callow, un- fledged, cognate with Lat. calvus, bald. Its opposite also survives as Fleck and Flick " Flygge, as byrdis, maturm, uolafoUis." (Prompt, Pan?.) Margaret Paston, writing (1460) of the revived hopes of Henry VI., says " Now he and alle his olde felawship put owt their fynnes, and am ryght flygge and mery." HAWK NAMES 221 We have naturally a set of names taken from the various species of falcons. To this class belongs Haggard, probably related to Anglo-Sax, haga, hedge, and used of a hawk which had acquired incurable habits of wildness by preying for itself. But Haggard is also a personal name (p. 81). Spark, earlier Sparhawk, is the sparrow-hawk. It is found already in Anglo-Saxon as a personal name, and the full Sparrowhawk also exists. Tassell is a corruption of tiercel, a name given to the male peregrine, so termed, according to the legendary lore of venery " Because he Is, commonly, a third part lesse than the female." (Cotgrave,) Juliet calls Romeo her " tassell gentle " (ii 2)* Muskett was a name given to the male sparrow-hawk, " Musket, a lytell hanke, mouchet." (Palsgrave.) Mushet Is the same name. It comes from Ital. moschetto, a little fly. For Its later application to a firearm cl falconet. Other names of the hawk class are Buzzard and Puttock, i.e. kite " Milan, a kite, puttock, glead " (Cotgrave) ; and to the same bird we owe the name Gleed, from a Scandinavian name for the bird " And the glede, and the kite, and the vulture after his kind." (Dent adv, 13.) To this class also belongs Ramage " Ramage, of, or belonging to, branches ; also, ramage, hagard, wild, homely, rude " (Cotgrave) and sometimes Lennard, an imitative form of " lanner/* the name of an inferior hawk ** Falcuncuins, a leonard*" (Holyoak, Lat. Diet., 222 BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES Povey Is a dialect name for the owl, a bird otherwise absent from the surname list. Among beast nicknames we find special attention given, as in modern vituperation, to the swine, although we do not find this true English word, unless it be oc- casionally disguised as Swain. Hogg does not belong exclusively to this class, as it is used in dialect both of a young sheep and a yearling colt. Anglo-Sax. sugu, sow, survives in Sugg. Purcell is Old Fr. pourcel (pourceau], dim. of Lat. porcus, and I take Pockett to be a disguised form of the obsolete porket " Porculus, a pygg : a shoote : a porket.'* (Cooper.) The word shoote in the above gloss is now the dialect shot, a young pig, which may have given the surname ShotL But Scutt is from a Mid. English adjective meaning short " Scute, or shorte, curtus, brevts " (Prompt. Pan/.) and is also an old name for the hare. Two other names for the pig are the northern Gait and the Lincolnshire Grice " Marcassin, a young wild boare ; a shoot or grice*" (Cotgrave.) Grice also represents le gris, the grey ; cf . Grace for le gras (p. 212). Bacon looks like a nickname, but is invariably found without the article. As it is common in French, it would appear to be an Old French accusative to Back, going back to Germanic Bacco (see p. 125), Hinks is Mid. Eng. hengst, a stallion, and is thus identical with Hengist (p. 186), Stott means both a bullock and a nag (p. 179) . Everyone remembers Wamba's sage disquisition on the names of animals in the first chapter of Ivanhoe, BEASTS 223 Like much of Scott's archaeology it is somewhat ana- chronistic, for the live animals were also called veals and muttons for centuries after Wamba's death " Mouton, a mutton, a weather "; "veau, a calie, or v&ale. n (Cotgrave,) Calf has become very rare as a surname, though Kalb is still common in Germany. Bardsley regards Duncalf and Metcalf as perverted from dun-croft and meadow- croft. It seems possible that they may be for down- calf and mead-calf, from the locality of the pasture, but this is a pure guess on my part. It is curious that beef does not appear to have survived, though Lebceuf is common in French, and bullocks are still called " beeves " in Scotland. Tegg is still used by butchers for a two-year-old sheep. Palsgrave gives it another meaning " Tt&g, or pricket (p. 216), saillant." Roe is also found in the older forms Rae and Ray, of course confused with Wmy (p. 127), as Roe itself is with Rowe (p. 9). Doe often becomes Dowe, Hind is usually occupative (p. 35), but Fr. Labiche suggests that it must sometimes be a nickname " Biche, a hind ; the female of a stagge." (Cotgrave,) Pollard was applied to a beast or stag that had lost its horns " He lias no horns, sir, has he ? " "No, sir, he's a pollard." (Beaumont and Fletcher, Phila$tev t v. 4.) Leverett is certified by the French surname Levrault. Derivation from Lever, Anglo-Sax. Leofhere, whence Levers, Leverson, or Leveson, is much less probable, as these Anglo-Saxon names rarely form dims, (see p. 76). Luttrel is in French Loutrel, perhaps a dim. of 224 BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES loutre, otter, Lat. lutra. From the medieval lutrer or tutmrius, otter hunter, we get Luttere?> no doubt con- fused with the musical Luter. While Cdtt is fairly common in the eastern counties, Robertus le Men and Willelmus le curre, who were living about the end of the twelfth century, are now completely disguised as Ken and Kerr. Modern French has both Lechien and the Norman Lequien* 1 We owe a few other surnames to the friend of man. Kennett, from a Norman dim, of chien, meant greyhound " Kenette, hounde, leporarius. 3 ' (Prompt. Parv.) The origin of the name Talbot is unknown, and it is uncertain whether the hound or the family should have precedence ; but Chaucer seems to use it as the proper name of a hound "Ran Colle our dogge, and Talbot, and Gerland, And Malkyn, with a dystaf in air hand/' (B, 4573-) The great Earl of Shrewsbury is affectionately called " Talbot, our good dogge " in political rimes of the fifteenth century. In early dictionaries may be found long lists of the fanciful names, such as Bright, Lightfoot, Ranger, Ring- wood, Swift, Tempest, given to hounds. This practice seems to throw some light on such surnames as Tempest, with which we may compare the German names Storm and Sturm. In the Pipe Rolls the name le esturmi, the stormy, occurs several times. To the same class belongs Thunder, found in the Pipe Rolls as Tonitruus, and not therefore necessarily a perversion of Tunder, i.e. Sherman (p. 170) 1 Lekain, the name of a famous French actor, has the same origin. FISHES 225 " Tondeur de dfafis, a shearman, or clothworker." (Cotgrave.) Garland, used by Cliancer as a dog's name, was earlier graland, and, as le garlaund is also found, it may be referred to Old Fr. grailler, to trumpet. It no doubt has other origins. We should expect Fo% to "be strongly represented, and we find the compounds Coif ox and Stelfox. The first means black fox ' ' A col fox ful of sly iniquitee " (B f 4405) and 1 conjecture that the first part of Stelfox is con- nected with stealing, as in the medieval name Stele-cat " The two constables made a thorough search and found John Stelfox hiding behind some bushes. Some of the jewellery was found upon him " (Daily Chronicle, June 3, 1913). In the north a fox is called Tod, whence Todhunter. This Tod is probably a personal name, like the French Renard and the Scottish Lawrie or Lowrie, applied to the same animal. Allan Ramsay calls him " slee Tod Lowrie." From the badger we have Brock and sometimes Gray " Blaireau, a badger, gray, boason, brock " (Cotgrave) but Badger itself is occupative (p. 181). The polecat survives as Fitch, Fitchett, and Fitchew " Fissau, a fitch, or fulmart." (Cotgrave.) On fish-names Bardsley remarks, " We may quote the famous chapter on ' Snakes in Iceland J : ( There are no snakes in Iceland/ and say there are no fish-names in England. This is almost true. The absence of marked traits of character in the, usually 16 226 BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES invisible, fish would militate against the adoption of such names. We should not expect to find the shark to be represented, for the word is of too late occurrence. But Whale is fairly common. Whale the mariner received 2 from Henry VII/s privy purse in 1498. The story of Jonah, or very generous proportions, may have originated the name Whalebelly, st borne by a respectable family in south-east England " (Bardsley) . But there would obviously be no great temptation to go fishing for nicknames when the beasts of the farm- yard and the forest, the birds of the marshes and the air, offered on every side easily understood comparisons. At the same time Bardsley's statement goes a little too far. He explains Gudgeon as a corruption of Goodison, But this, true though it may be in some cases, will not explain the very common French sur- name Goujon. The phrase ' ' greedy gudgeon ' ' suggests that in this case a certain amount of character had been noticed in the fish. Sturgeon also seems to be a genuine fish-name. We find Fr. Lesturgcon and Ger. Stoer, both meaning the same* We have also Smelt and the synonymous S/>wf/w?g". In French and German we find other surnames which undoubtedly belong to this class, but they are not numerous and probably at first occurred only in regions where fishing or fish- curing were important industries. A few examples will show that apparent fish-names are usually not genuine, Chubb is for Job (p. 32), Eeles is one of the numerous derivatives of Elias (p. 85), Hake is, like Hack, from the Scandinavian Hacun, Haddock is sometimes a perversion of the local Haydock, Lamprey comes via Old French from Old High Ger. Landprecht, which has usually given Lambert* SPECIAL FEATURES 227 Pike is local (p. 107), Pilchard is for Pilcher (p. 171), Roach is Fr. Laroche, Salmon is for Salomon, and Turbot is the Anglo-Sax. Thurbeorht, which has also given Tarbut, as Thurgod has given Targett. But in few of the above examples is the possibility of fish origin abso- lutely excluded. We have also many surnames due to physical re- semblances not extending beyond one feature. Birdseye may be sometimes of local origin, from ey, island (p. 117), but as a genuine nickname it is as natural as the sobriquet of Hawkeye which Natty Bumppo re- ceived from the Hurons. German has the much less pleasing Gansauge, goose-eye ; and Alan Oil de larrun, thief's eye, was fined for very reprehensible conduct in 1183. To explain Crowfoot as an imitative variant of Crawford is absurd when we find a dozen German surnames of the same class and formation and as many in Old or Modern French beginning with pied de. Ct Pettigrew (p. 201) and Sheepshanks. We find in the Paris Directory not only Piedeleu (Old Fr. leu, wolf) and Piedoie (oie, goose), but even the full Pied-de~Li$vre, Professeur & la Faculty de droit. The name Butteid was spelt in the sixteenth century bul-hed, i.e. bull-head, a literal rendering of Front de Boeut Weatherhead (p, 179) is perhaps usually a nickname (t For that old weather-beaded fool, I know how to laugh at him/* (Congreve, Love fo? Love t ii, 7.) Coxhead is another obvious nickname. A careful analysis of some of the most important medieval name-lists would furnish hundreds of further ex- amples, some too outspoken to have survived into our degenerate age, and others which are now so corrupted that their original vigour is quite lost. 228 BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES Puns and jokes upon proper names are, 8 Burgoyne, 99 Canter, 166 Chappcll, 32, 130 Burke, 122 Cantrell, 166 Chappuis, 53 Burman, 133 Capcl, 130 Charity, 197 Burncll, 37, 215 Capper, 19 Charles, 6x Burnett, 215 Capron, 198 Charlton, 32 Burnup, 108 Burrard, 180 Carboncll, 207 Care, 150 Charter, 166 Charters, 166 Burrcll, 215 Carl ton, 32 Chase, 124 Bursell, 100 Cornell, 131 Chastncy, 141 Burt, 28 Carpenter, 32, 163 Chater, 164 Burward, 180 Carr, 113 Chatt, 88 Bury, 121 Carrick, 106 Chattaway, 128 Bush, 1 8, 119 Carrington, 101 Chaucer, 171 Busk, 1 8 Carrodus, 32 Cbawncr, 171 Buss, 1 8 Carruthcrs, 32 ("ha worth, 100 Butcher, 14, 148 Caiteret, 139 Chaytor, 33, 164 Butler, 1 6 Carthew, 67 Cheap, 123 Butlin, 30 Carton, 172 Chock, 200 Butt, 75, 135 Carver, 186 Cheese, 156 Butter, 220 Casaubon, 51 Cheeseman, so, 148 Butterfield, 112 Case, 94 Cheetham, 47 Button, 75 Cash, 94 Chenery, 142 Buttress, 1311 ("ass, 94 Chenevix, 51 Butts, 135 Cassel, 55 Chcsaey, 141 Buzzard, 221 Casscll, 132 Chettlo, 74 Byatt, 124 Casson, 94 Child, 194 Bye, 122 Castle, 132 Childcrs, 166 Bythesca, 104 Catchpole, 184 Chimi, 199 Bywatcr, 115 Catlin, 32, 36, 88 Chinnery, 14% Cator, 33, 164, xS6 Chipp, 123 Cable, SB Catt, 88, 224 Chisholm, 117 Cade, 75 Caudle, 39 Christie, 87 Cadrnan, xa Caught, 128 Christmas, 88 Caesar, 82 Cauldwcll, 39, 129 Chubb, 32, 85, 226 Caffyn, 213 Gaunter, 166 Chucks, 10 Cain. 85, 141 Caird, 173 Cayzer, 82, 144 Cazen-Qve, 133 Chumloy, 30 Church, 32 Cairn, 106 . Centlivre, 201 Churchcr, 131 Cakebread, 156 Chaffe, 213 Churchman, 131 Calcott, 134 Chalk, 102 Churchward, 180 Caldecott, 134 Challands, 100 Clapp, 149 Calf, 213 Challen, xoo Qarabutt, 8x INDEX 235 Clare, 150 Constable, 45 Crawcour, 206 Clark, 19, 32, 47, 163 Converse, 166 Creagh,, 106 Clarkson, 147 Conyers, 142 Crease, 212 Clavinger, 155 Cook, 4 Creasey, 212 Clay, 1 02 Cookson, 147 Creed, 197 Claypole, 116 Coombes, 18 Cremer, 182 Cleaver, 152 Cooper, 44, 45 Crick, 115 Cleevc, 1 08 Cope, 107 Cripps, 37 Cleveland, 114 Copeman, 168 Crisp, 37 Cleverly, 104 Copp, 107 Crocker, 174 Clew, 1 08 Copperwheat, ua Croft, 123 Cliff, 1 08 Coppin, 9 Croker, 174 Clift, 108 Copping, 63 Crombie, 212 Ciitheroe, 107 Cordeaux, 12 Crook, 117, 211 Clive, 1 08 Corderoy, 135 Crookshanks, 211 Close, 124 Cordery, 135 Crosier, 166 Clough, 1 08 Cordner, 151 Cross, 17 Clow, 1 08 Corker, 152 Crosskeys, 79, 135 Clowser, 124 Corneille, 204 Crouch, 17 Clucas, 66 Corner, 154 Croucher, 17 Coad, 75, 216 Cornish, 24, 96 Crouse, 212 Coates, 104, 133 Cornwallis, 19, 24, 96 Crowe, 218 Cobb, 9, 75 Corrie, 134 Crowfoot, 227 Cobbett, 69, 76, 88 Corser, 151 Crowne, 135 Cobbin, 9 Cosser, 151 Crowther, 161 Cobbold, 9, 69 Cossey 128 Crozier, 166 Cobham, 75 Coster, 182 Cruikshank, 21 1 Cock, 65, 135 Cos way, 128 Crum, 24, 211 Cockayne, 98 Cotman t 133 Crump, 24, 2ii Cocker, 187 Cotter, 133 Cubitt, 29, 88 Cocking, 65 Cotterill, 133 Cuff, 75 Codes, 65 Cotton, 134 Cullen, 57 ., 100 Codd, 75 Cottrcll, 133 Cullum, 122 Codlin, is Couch, 216 Culpepper, 205 Codner, 151 Court, 128 Culver, 220 Coe, 218 Courtenay, 7 Culveihouse, 220 Coffer, 155 Courtney, 7 Cumming, 66 Coffin, 213 Courvoisier, 151 Cunditt, 129 Coke, 12, 164 Cousins, 193 Cundy, 129 Colbeck, 115 Cover, 45, *5S Cunlife, 108 Cole, 74 Cowan, 54 Cup pies, 69 . Coleman, 64 Coward, 10, 178 Curnow, 96 Colfox, 225 Cowdery, 141 Cxirrer, 154 Collard, 73 Cowdrey, 141 Currie, 134 Collett, 63, 166 Cowper, 44 Curry, 134 Colley, 22 Cowperthwaite, 112 Curryer, 154 Collier, 174 Cox, 65 Curson, n Ceilings, 35, 74 Coxall, 99 Curtis, 211 Collins, 3, 22, 6j Coxhead, 227 Curzon, u Coioime, 131 Coy, 211 Cuss, 193 Colt, 51 Cozens, 193 Gussens, 193 Coltard, 178 Cracknell, '156 Gust, 95 Coltman, 64, 17^ Cradock, 78 distance, 95 Coivin, 73 Craft, -123 Cutbush, 205 Combe, 18 Cragg, 1 06 Cutlack, 32 Comber, 170 Craig, 1 06 Cutler, 96, 172 Compton, to6 Cramer, 182 Cutts, 88 Comyn, 66 Cranmcr, xx6 Cuvier, 45 Conay, 129 Crash aw, no Conner, 173 Craskc, 212 Dabbs, 31, 62 Conquest, 197 Craven, w Dabaey, 16, ioi 13 236 INDEX Daft, 47 Dempster, 184 Doubleday, 177 Daintree, 30 Dench, 97 Doubtnre, 307 Dainty, 30 Dendy, 87 Douch, 7, 57, 98 Daisy, 97 Dene, 22, 112 Doudney, 117 Dakin, 163 Denison, 145 Doutrepont, 104 Dalbiac, 51 DenmaD, ixa Dove, 220 Dale, 106 Denne, 22, 112 Dow, 57, 216 Dallaway, 128 Dennett, 83 Dowd, 73 Dallison, 38, 100 Dennis, 83, 98 Dowe, 223 Dallman, 100 Denny, 83 Down, 75, 76, xo6 Dalmain, 100 Dentry, 30 Downing, 106 Dalziel, 29 Denyer, 112 Dowson, 57 D ampler, 138 Depledge, 163 Doyle, xox Dance, 10, 85 Dering, 71 D'Oyley, xoi Dancock, 85 Derrick, 81 Drake, 2x7 Dane, 98 Derwent, 1x5 Dreng, 145 Danger, 100 Devenish, 96 Drew, 53, 81 Dangerfield, 139 Devereux, xoo Drewett, 53 Danks, 38 Devey, 212 Drewry, 195 Dann, 85 Deville, 86 Dring, 74, 143 Dannatt, 85 Dew, xox Drinkwater, 190 Danvers, 16, 100 Dexter, 18, 170 Druce, 81, xoo Darbisnire, 97 Diamond, 9 Pruitt, 53, 8 1 Darblay, 141 Dibb, 14 Drury, 195 Darby, 32 Dibble, 14 Dry, 191 Darcy, 101 Dibden, 112 Dubois, 45 Darmsteter, 55 Dick, 62 Duck, 144 Darwen, 115 Dickens, 20 Puckett, X44 Darwin, 73 Dicker, 125 Pudency, xxr Dasent, 212 Dickman, 105, 123 Puff, 2l6, 220 Daubeney, 16, 101, Dickson, 29 Puff us, 132 138 Picudomi^,, 1x7 Pufour, 134 Davies, 43 Dieuleveut, 203 Puke, 144 Daw, 218 nieumegard, 203 Puncalf, 223 Dawbarn, 63 n. i Piggs, 32, 63 Punn, 75, 76, 106, 2x4 Dawe, 57 Dike, 125 Punning, 71 Dawkes, 63 Pimanchc, QO Punnock, 2x9 Dawkins, 63 Piplock, 197 Punstan, 69 Dawnay, 141 Dipple, 14 Pupont 43 Day, 57, 177 Dip rose, 140 Pupr^, 45 Deacon, 165 Disney, xoi Dupuy, 140 Deakin, 115 Dix, 32 Purand* 43, 5% Dean, 22, 112, 163 Dixon, 29 Purbeyfiejfd, 139 Pear, 190, 211 Pobb, 6a Durfey, xoi Dearlove, 36, 69 Pobree, 141 Purr, 191 Peath, 101 Podd, 75 Purtant, 81 Pedman, 64 Poddridge, 109 Purward, xSo Dee, 1x5 Podge, 60 Putt, 75 Peedes, 75 Podsley, 75 Dutton, 75 Peemer, 184 Dodson, 62, 73, 76 Dyball, 14 Peer, 211 Doe, 223 Pye, 83 Pe Foe, 141 Pekker, 173 Pogood, 204 Polemaxi, xoo Pyer, 18, 263 Pyke, 125 Delamere, 12 Dojjttle, 204 Dyson, 32, 83 Pelane, 51 Doll, 139 Pyster, 170 Delapole, 12 Dolley,* xoi Delaware, 129 Dollnian, xoo Eade, 75 Pell, 106 Dollond, 51 Eady, 60 Pelmar, xa Dombey, 2x2 Eanaes. xoi Pelves, 125 P6nne, 106 zr , * yj Earl, jt 74, ^44 Pmange, 90 Poon, 80 Earnshaw^ 39, no INDEX 237 Earwaker, 69 Fairburn, 194 Planner, 169 Easter, 89 Faircloth, 108 Flaxman, 170 Eastman, 73 Fairclough, 108 Fleck, 220 E"bbs, 75, 76, 94 Fairfax, 20, 214 Fleet, 115 Ebbs worth, 75, 123 Falcon, 135 Fleischer, 150 Eccles, 1 20 Falconer, 183 Fleischmann, 150 Ede, 60 Fall, 91 Fleming, 120 Edelstein, 55 Fallows, vii, 192 Fletcher, 150, 1 86 Eden, 60 Falstaff, 73 Flick, 220 Edes, 75 Fanner, 31 Flinders, 33, 100 Edge, 126 Farebrother, 196 Flood, 67, 115 Edison, 60 Farrant, 81 Flower, 169 Edkins, 60 Farrar, 172 Flowerdew, 146 Edmondstone, loS Farthing, 202 Floyd, 67 Edridge, 73 Faulkner, 182 Foakes, 61 Ed wards > 46 Faunt, 146 Fogg, 75 Eeles, 226 Fatintleroy, 146, 194 Foljambe, 212 Egg, 31 Fawkes, 8a Folkard, 69 Elder, 118 Fay, 141 Follett, 213 Eldred, 72 Fayer, 152 n. Folley, 133 Eldridge, 72 Feare, 211 Folliott, 212 Elgar, 69 Fearenside, 126 Fonblanque, 51 Elgood, 71, 93 Fearon, 15, 171 Foot, 125 Ellershaw, 119 Featherstonhaugh, 116 Forcett, 126 Elliott, 63, 85 Feaver, 18, 171 Ford, 102, 117 Ellis, 85 Feaveryear, 72 n. Forester, 175 Elmer, 72, 174 Fell, 106 Forster, 175 Elphick, 73 Fellows, 192 Forth, 117 Elvey, 69 Fender, 34 Fosbrooke, 125 Elvin, 72 Fenimore, 36, 113 Fosdike, 125 Elwin, 72 Fenncr, 31, 177 Fosse, 125 Elwood, 109 Fanning, 117 Fossett, 126 Ely, 8 1 Fermor, 148 Foster, 38, 175 Emerson, 9$ Ferrers, 38, 138 Fothergill, 109 Emery, 80 Ferrier, 172 Foulds, io5> 124 Emmett, 95 Ferris, 38, 6 1 Foiintain, 22 Empson, 95, 193 Ferry, 61 Foweil, 24, 217 England, 98, 117 Feulard, 203 Fowkes, 6 1 English, 96 Fevyer, 18 Fowler, 24, 165 Ensor, 30 Fewkes, 61 Fox, 61, 225 Entwistle, 128 Fewster, 174 Foy, 141 Epps, 75, 76, 94 Ffoulkes, 30 France, 97 Esmond, 72 Ffrench, 30 Francis, 96 Evans, 43 Field, 104, us Frankham, 122 Eve, 90 Fiennes, 139 Franklin, 145 Everett, 17, 71, 134 Filmer, 73 Freake, 210 Bvershed, ia6 Finn, 216 Frean, 141 Every, 80 Finnemore, 36 Free, 74 Ewan, 38 Firebrace, 80 Freebairn, 145 Ewart, 178 Firminger, 20, 33, 148 Freeborn, 145 Bwens, 38 Firth, xx6 Freeney, 141 Ewer r 1 86 Fish, 217 French, 96 Eye, 117 Fishwick, 123 Frere, 163 Eyre, 195 Fisk, 217 Frewin, 73 Fitchi 196, 223 Frick, 210 Faber, xS, ios * Fitchett, 225 Friend, 192 Fabricius, 148 n. Fitchew, 225 Fripp, 40 Facey, 34 Fitz, 196 Frith, 116, 124 Failes, 141 Fiveash, 141 Frobisher, 173 Fairbairn, 194 Flack, 114 Froude, 74 Fairbrass, 80 Fladgate, 124 Fry, a 8 238 INDEX Fryer, 163 Gauntlett, 135 Goater, 178 Fulcher, 69, 74 Gavin, 79 Godbehere, 72, 20$ Fullalove, 207 Gaylard, 213 Godber, 72 Fuller, 170 Gaylor, 184 Goddard, 73, 178 Fulijames, 212 Gaylord, 213 Godliman, 64 Furber, 173 Gaynor, 79 Goff, 216 Furneaux, 138 Gearing, 80 Gold, 4 Furner, r^8 Gedge, 212 Goldberg, 55 Furness, 134 Geldard, 178 Goldenkrantz, 55 Fumival, 139 GcII, 33 Golding, 39 Furze, 119 G<3m, 60 Goldmann, 55 Gender, 196 Goldsmith, 15, 54 Gabb, 88 Gcnever, 79 Goldwin, 39 Gabbett, 88 Genn, 79 Golightly," 206 Gable, 88 Gent, 213 Gooch, 216 Gale, 134 George, 61 Good, 4, 74 Galer, 184 Gcpp, 6r Goodacre, 113 Gales, 135 German, 4 Goodair, 72 Galilee, 130 Gerring, 80 Goodale, 156 Galley, 130 Gerrish, 211 Goodbairn, 194 Gallon, 33 Gibbms, 62 Goodban, 194 Galpin, 82 Gibbon, 62, 63 Goodbeer, 72, 156 Gait, 222 Gibbs, 62 Goodbum, 194 Gambier, 51 Giblett, 12, 62 Goodchild, 36, 74 Gamble, 35 Gibson, 62 Goodday, 191 Game, 124 Gifkins, 63 Goodevc, 69, 70 Gansauge, 227 Ganter, 171 Gilbart, 62 Gilchrist, 67 Goodfcllow, 190, 196 Goodhart, 12 Gapp, 48 Gildea, 67 Goodhew, 60 Garbett, 73 Gildersleeve, 199 Goodhind, 60 Garden, 124 Gilhaxn, 59 Goodhue, 60 Gardiner, 29 Gilkes, 38 Goodier, 72 Gar field, 124 Gill, 25, 33, 108 Gooding, 39 Gargery, 37 Gillespie, 67 Goodlake/ 32, 69 Garibaldi, 73 Gillvtt, 63 Goodliffc, 73, 108 Garland, 225 Gillies, 67 Goodluck, 69, 197 Garlici^ 155, 191 Gilliver, 79 Goodman, 64 Garment, 72 Gilman, 59 Goodrich, 70 Garner, 81, 154 Gilmour, 67 Goodson, 19$ Garnett, 80 Gilroy, 67 Goodwin, 39 Garnham, 122, 200 Gimson, 60 Goodyear, 72 Garrard, 17, 32, 73 Ginder, 196 Gore, 113 Gaxrett, 17, 73 Ginger, 155 Gorman, 73 Garrick, 51, 141 Ginn, 79 Gorst, xo, 119 Garrison, 17 Ginxxcr, 148 Gosling, xo, 32 Garside, 124 Gipps, 32, 6a GosSj, xo Garth, 124 Gipson, 62 Gosselin, xo Gascoyixe, 99 Glaisher, 174 Cosset, xo Gaskell, 109 Glascock, 40 Gossip, 196 Gaskin, 99 Glascott, 40 Gotobed, 72, 206 Gate, 185 Glass, 216 Gott, 129 Gates, 124 Glasspool, 1x6 Gottbehiit, 203 Garth, 38 Gleed, 221 Gotthclf, 303 Gather-cole, 205 Gathergood, 204 Gla^g, 2ij Gleig, 21 x Coughy 4.R, 1x6 Goxijon, 226 Gatliff , 73 Glen, 106 Gow, 173 GatHng, 33 Gloster, 19 Grac, xi 9, 23c$ Gatty, 38 Gaukroger, 60 Gluck, 191 GlUckstein, 33 Gracedieu, 203 Graindorg, ^07 Gaunt, xoo, Gaunter* 172 Glyan, xo6 Goad, 86 Grammer, X55 INDEX 239 Granger, 132 Gutteridge, 70 Harrison, 38, 47 Grant, 66, 212 Gwynne, 15, 216 Harrod, 69 Granville, 139 Hart, 54, 135 Grattepaillc, 206 Hack, 74, in Hartopp, 1 08 Graves, no Hackett, 74 Harvard, 72 Gray, 225 Hacking, in Harvest, 90 Grayson, 147 Haddock, 226 Harvey, 57 Greatorex, 109 Haggard, 81, 22! Harward, 72, 180 Greaves, no Haggett, 8 1 Harwood, 109 Green, 45 Haig, 21, 124 Hasler, 185 GreenaU, 116 Haigh, 21, 124 Hasluck, 204 Greenaway, 35, 128 Hailstone, 108 Hastings, 73 Greenfield, 139 Haines, 73 Hatch, 124 Greenhalgh, 116 Hake, 226 Hatchard, 81 Greenhow, 106 Haldane, 73 Harchett, 81, 124 Greenidge, 123 Hale, 21, 45, 116 Hathaway, 35, 128 Greening, 117 Hales, 21 Hatt, 135 Greenish, 39 Halfpenny, 202 Hatter, 19 Greenman, 132 Hall, 4, 21, 45, 131 Hatton, 136 Greens treet, 120 Hallett, 37 Haupt, 126 Gregson, 57 Halliday, 89 Havelock, 69 Grenfell, 106 Halliweli, 129 Haw, 124 GrenviUe, 139 Hallmark, 202 Haward, 180 Greville, 139 Ham, 122 Haweis, 94 Grew, 220 Hamblin, 35 Hawcs, 21, 1 1 6, 114 Gricc, 222 Hambro, 100 Hawke, 218 Grier, 57 Hamburg, 55 Hawker, 182 Grieve, 181 Hamlet, 12, 37, 62 Hawkes, 38, 63 Grieves, 147 Hamlin, 35 Hawkins, 37, 63 Griffin, 217 Hammant, 35 Hawley, 104 Grimes, 74 Hammond, 35, 74 Haworth, 180 Grimsdick, 125 Hamnctt, 36 Hawtin, 14 Grimwade, 117 Hamper, 173 Hawtrey, 138 Grindrod, 35, in Groscr, 151 Hampshire, 98 Hancock, 2 Hay, 21, 124 Haybittle, 180 Gross, 213 Hand, 3 Haycock, 124 Grossetetc, 126 Hands, 3 Haycraft, 123 Grossmith, 44 Handyside, 126 Hay day, 89 Grosvcnor, 185 Hann, 3 Hayes, 21, 105, 124 Grotc, 213 Hannibal, 82 Hayman, 180 Grove, no Hanrott, 38 Hay ward, 180 Grub be, 50 Hansell, 39 Haywood, 109 Grundy, 37, 69 Hansom, 3, 36, 101 Hazelrigg, 109 Gubbins, 124 . Hanson, 3, 36 Hazeldean, 1x3 Gudgeon, 226 Hanway, 100 Hazlitt, 126 Guest, 192 Harbord, 32 Head, 25, 76, 125 Gulliver, 79 Harbottle, 133 Heal, 1x6 Gundry, 37, 69 Harcourt, 139 Healey, 82 Gunn, 74 Hardaker, 112 Heard, 32 Gunnell, 73 Harding, 39 Hearne, 127 Gunner, 73 Hardisty, 124 Hearnshaw, 39, no, Gunning, 39, 71 Hardwin, 39 219 Gunston, 123 Hargreave, no Heaven, 38 Gunter, 72 Harlow, 107 Heaviside, 126 Gunwin, 39 Harman, 64, 72 Hebblethwaite, xxa Gurney, 138 Harms worth, 123 Hedgcock, 124 Gutbier, 156 Harness, 81 Hedge, 21, 124 Gutch, n6 Harnctt, 38 Hedgecoe, 218 Gutentag, 192 Harold, 69 Hedges, 21 Guthrfe, 7 Harrap, 108 HelHer, 173 Gutjahr, 72 Harris, 38, 46 Hemming, fi 240 INDEX Henderson, 35 Hogg, 190, 223 Hudson, 3. 7*? Hendry, 34 Hcndy, 211 Henery, 34 Hoggart, 178 Hogsflcsh, 157 Holbrook, 115 W 7** o /J Huggms, 59 Hughes, 46 Huish, 125 Henfrey, 82 Holder, 146 Hull, 23, 1 06 Hensman, 186 Hole, 109 Hulme, 117 Henson, 35 Holiday, 89 Humber, 115 Henty, 211 Holinshed, xx8 Hume, 117 Herald, 69, 185 Holl, 109 Humfrey, 60 Herbert, 73 Holland, 98 Hunt, 148 Herd, 32 Hermitage, 130 Holliman, 6, 197 Hollings, 118 Hunter, 149 Kurd, 32 Herne, 127, 219 Hollingshead, 118 Htirlbatt, 204 Heron, 219 Hollins, 118 Hum, 127 Herrick, 73 Hollis, xx8 Hurst, xxo Herries, 13 Hertslet, 112 Heseltine, na Holliwell, 129 Hollo well, 129 Holm, 117 Husband, 177 Hussey, 141 Hustler, 165 " Heslop, 108 Holman, 9 Hutchins, 59 Hester, 89 Holmes, 117, xxS Hutson, 35 Hew, 59 Hewens,*38 Hewett, 59 Hewlett, 59, 62 Holt, 109 Hoi turn, 123 Holyland, 98 Holyoak, 6 Huxtable, 123 Hyatt, 124 Hyde, 125 Hester, 38 Hey, 124 Hibbert, 73, 74 Hick, 62 Homan, 64, xx6 Hornburgcr, 55 Home, 38, 117 Horn wood, 118 Ibbott, 94 Ibbotson, 94 Iddins, 94 Hickman, 3, 64 Hone, 10 8 Iddlson, 94 Hickmott, 195 Hide, 125 Higginbottom, 77, 114 Honeyball, 76, 8a Hoo, xx6 Hood, 198 Ide, 94 Image, 135 Imray, 80 Higgs, 63 Hildyard, 73 Hook, 116 Hooker, 116 Ing, 117 Hill, 23, 45, 96, 106 Hoole, 109 Ingall, 117 Hillard, 173 Hooman, xx6 Inge, 75, 117 Hillxnan, 105 Hillyard, 173 Hillyer, 173 Hind, 9, 35, 177, 323 Hine, 35, 177 Hulks, 222 Hinxman, 186 Hird, 32 Hirsch, 55 Hope, 108 Hopkins, 24, 35, 62 Hopper, 165 Hopps, 32, 35, <5a Horlock, 198, 214 Horne, 127, 135 Horner, 169 Horniblow, 205 Hforniman, 35 Ingle, x 1 7 Inglfc, 96 Ingoldsby, xx7 Ingram, 63, 8a Ings, xx7 Inkpen, 135 Inman, 165 Inward, 28 Inwood, a 8 Hirst, no Hitch, 63 Hitchcock, 65 Hoar, a 14 Hobart, 73 Horridge, 39 Hose 131 Hoskins, 38 Hostler, 165 Houchin, 59 Ireland, 24, 97 Iremongcr, 170 Ironmonger, 170 Isard, 79 Isemonger, 170 Hobbs, 24, 32, 35, Hough, 106 Isitt, 79 62 Hobday, 89 Hobson, 24 House, 9, 97, 104, 131 How, 9, 59, 106 Howard, 180 Ivatts* 80 Ives, 80 Ivicetey, 196 Hockaday, 89 Hockin, 37 Howarth, 180 Ivlson, So Ivory, 80 Hodder, ax Howitt, 59 Iisod, 79 Hodge, 60 Hewlett, 59 laj^aro, 79 Hodson, 6s Boyle, 109 Hoo, xi6 Hogarth, 1*4 Hoxtar, 171 Htibbard, 73 Jackson, 47 Jtff ? 0*4 INDEX 241 fagger, 182 Kain, 85 Knoblauch, 155, 191 [ago, 60 Kaines, 141 Knock, 107 "aHand, 33 KalbHeisch, 157 Knocker, 107 'ames, 46 Karslake, 37 Knollys, 29, 107 'anaway, 100 Kay, 79 Knott, 1 6, 30, io7j 'anes, 100 Reach, 25 108, 219 'anvier, 91 Keble, 69 n Knowler, 167 'anways, 100 Kedge, 212 Knowles, 29, 107 fardine, 29 Keep, 132 Knowlson, 30 Carman, 4 Kellogg, 129 Knox, 1 08 farrold, 32, 73 Kemble, 69 Kopf, 126 farvis, 32, 87 Kemp, 74, 149 Krummbein, 211 feakes, 60 Kempster, 170 feary, 79 Ken, 224 Labiche, 223 febb, 61 Kennard, 72 Labouchere, 149 Jeffcock, 40 Kennedy, 216 Lacey, 4 Jeffcott, 29, 40 Kennett, 224 Lack, 116 fellicoe, 37 Kenney, 141 Lade, 129 [ernmett, 60 Kenrick, 73 Ladyman, 64 Jenkins, 38 Kerr, 113, 224. Laird, 145 Jenks, 38 Ketch, 25, 212 Lake, 104, 116 Jenner, 33, 148 Kettle, 74 Lakernan, 64 Jennifer, 79 Kew,5 Lamb, 63 n. 2, 135 Jennings, 25, 35, 63 Key, 79, 129, 136 Lambard, 100 Jenoure, 33, 148 Keylock, 129 Lambert, 73, 74 Tephcott, 29 Keynes, 141 n. Lanibie, 63 Jepson, 6 1 Keys, 79 Lamrnas, 89 Jenny n, 4 Kibbles, 69 n Lamrniter, 201 Jerningnam, 122 Kiddell, 144 La Monnaie, 165 Jerram, 87 Kidder, 181 Lamoureux, 191 Jessop, 85 Kiddier, 181 Lamprey, 226 Tewctt, 25 Kidger, 148 Lance, 79 Jewhurst, 125 Kidney, 200 Lancelot, 79 Jewsbury, 125 Killip, 66 Lander, 186 Tex, 60 Kilner, 25, 164 Lang, 31 Jinks, 38 Kimball, 69 Langbain, 138 , Jobling, 71, 85 Kimber, 170 Langlois, 96 Jobson, 85 King, 21, 47, *44 Langtoft, 1 08 Johnson, 25, 47 Kingdom, 106 Langworthy, 123 Johnston, 108 Kingdon, 106 Lankester, 97 Jolland, 33 Kingscote, 133 Lankshear, 99 Jollifife, 212 Kingson, 146 Lanyon, 67 Jones, 25 Kingston, 146 Lardner, 186 Jordan, 58 Joslin, 32 Kipping, 71 Kipps, 32 Larkin, 58 Larned, 32, 191 Jowett, 25 Kkk, 32 Larpent, 12 Joy, 25 Kkkbride, 88 Lasalle, 45, 131 Joyce, 94 Kkker, 131 Lateward, 180 Jubb, 32 Kirkman, 131 Latham, 133 Judd, 58 Kirkus, 132 Latimer, 172 Judge, 184 Kisser, 152 Latner, 172 fudkins, 58 Kitchin, 134 Launder, 186 Tudson, 58, 184 Kitching, 35 Lavender, 186 Jukes, 38, 58 Kite, 74 Law, 58, 107 M 33 Kitson, 87, 95 Lawman, 64 Junior, 145 Kittermaster, 120 Lawrie, 225 Juniper, 79 Knapp, 107 Lawson, 58 Jupp, 3^ 85 Knapper, 107 Lay, 28, 58 Jury, 125 Knatchbull, 206 Layard, 51 justice, 184 KneUer, 167 Layman, 64 Juxon, 184 Knight, 145 Lea, 28 17 242 INDEX Leach, 163 Ley, 28 Lowe, 54 Leadbeater, 173 Liberty, 123 Lowe, 55 Leadbitter, 173 Lidgate, 124 Lowell, 197 Leader, 178 Lidgett, 124 Lowndes, 113 Leaf, 74, 211 Lidley, 51 Lowrie, 225 Leaper, 152, 165 Liebevoll, 207 Lowson, 58 Lcaroyd, in Light, 210 Luard, 51 Letham, 132 Lightfoot, 126 Lubbock, 100 Leather, 107 Lightwood, 210 Lucas, 87 Leatherb arrow, 107 Ligonler, 51 Luck, 87, ioo, i< Leathcs, 132 Lilburne, 6 197 Leboeuf, 223 Lilienfeld, 55 Luckctt, 87 Lechien, 224 Lilley, 136 Lucock, 87 Ledgard, 81 Lilly white, 81 Luff, 197 Ledger, 81 Linacre, u Lufkins, 197 Ledieu, 86 Lind, 1 18 Luker, 179 Lee, 28, 45, 54, 102 Lindley, 118 Lund, 113 Leech, 103 Lines, 118 Lunn, 113 Leete, 129 Ling, 119 Lush, 185 Lefanu, 51 Liimell, 79 l-nsher, 184 Lefilleul, 196 Lister, 166, 170 Lusk, 192 Lefroy, 51 Littimer, 33 Lxiter, 2 - 24 Leggatt, 1 66 Little, 210 Lutterer, 224 Legge, 28, 8 1 Littleboy, XQI Luttrcl, 223 Legh, 28 Littleehild, 195 Lye, 28 Lehideux, 191 Littlcfair, 192 Lynch, 127 Leicester, 19 Littlejohn, 59 Lyndhurst, 118 Leif, 74 Littleproud, 123 Lyncs, 118 Leifchild, 71 Littleworth, 123 Lynrx, 106 Leigh, 28 Littro 1 , 32 Lyon, 135 Lekain, 224 Livesey, 73 Lyons, 54 Lexnaitre, 12 Livingston, 108 Lyte, 210 Lenaan, 194 Lloyd, 48, 216 temon, 73 1 *94 Loader, 178 Mabbs, 3 Lempriere, 144 Lock, 129 Maccy, 59 Lenain, 210 Lockhart, 7 Macllroy, 67 Lennard, 221 Lockyer, 148 Mackenrio, 59 Lent, 90 Locock, 58 Maclean, 67 Leppard, 217 Lodge, 133 Macnab, 66 Lequeux, 5 Loft us, 132 Macpherson, 66 Lequien, 224 Lombard, too Maddox, 78 Lermittc, 167 Lesec, 191 Loncy, 34 Long, Maggot. 93 Mahood, 93 Lesley, 6 Longfellow, toi Mainpricc, 185 Lester^ 19 Longman, 64 M'ainwaring, 27, 42, x< Lesttango, 12 Longstaff, 198 Mair, 184 Lesturgeon, 226 Looker, 179 Major, 184 Lesueur, 151 Lord, 145 Makepeace, 304 LeteHier, 45 Loriraer, 172 Makius, H6 Letts, 94 Lorincr, 172 Malapert, 191 Letlson, 94 Loring, 100 Malcolm, 67 Lever, 223 Lorkin, 58 Malosherbes, 119 Leverett, 223 Love, 197 Malhcrbc, 119 Levcridgo, 73 Loveday, 89 Malins, too Leverson, 223 Lovejoy, 304 Malloson, 37, 93 Leveson, 223 Lovell, 197 Malpas, i5i Levick, 33, 144 Levrault, 233 Lover. 191 Lovcndge, 7s Malthus, 132 Maltravers, 131 Lewes, 46 Lewin, 72 Lovett, 197 Loviag, 100 Manfrey, 73 Mangles, 69 Lewis, 46, 54 Low^ 17, 5$. 107 Mama, 64, 177, 192 INDEX 243 Mannerin^ 30, 142 Mears, 12, 104, 116 Monier, 173 Manning, 71 Meatyard, 136 Monk, 163 Mansell, 99 Medd, 112 Monks, 147 Manser, 82 Medley, 198 Monkton, 123 Manteufel, 86 Medhcott, 198 Montmorency, 139 Manton, 4 Medward, 180 Montresor, 139 Maple, 3 ., 119 Medway, 115 Moody, 208 Mapleson, 3 Mee, 65, 86 Moodyman, 5 Mapietliorpc, 3 n. Mees, 142 Moon, 165 Mappin, 3 Meese, 142 Moore, 2, 45, 98, 113, Mapplc, 3 ft., 119 Meeson, 86 216 March, 86, go Meggitt, 93 Moorman, 113 Marchant, 23, 32, 163 Marchbanks, 30 Mciklejohn, 59 Mcller, 25, 164 Morant, 81 Mordaunt, 212 Margetts, 93 Hellers, 147 Mordue, 203 Manllier, 167 Mellor, 164 Morel, 215 Marner, 164 Mellsop, 195 Morgan, 46 Marratt, 23 Melton, 31 Morley, 101 Marriage, 197 Melville, 139 Morris, 46, 93, 98, 113 Marriott, 63 Menzics, 29 Morrison, 93 Maoris, 113 Mercer, 169 Morrow, go Marrott, 23, 93 Merrill, 215 n. i Morsheadf, 126 Marryat, 63 Merry weather, 191 Mortimer, 139 Mars, 91 Messer, 148 n. i, 177 Mortlock, 197 Marsh, 104, 113 Metcalf, 223 Moss, 85, 113 Marshall, 45, 183 Metzger, 150 Mossman, 113 Martin, 46 Mew, 134 Motley, 198 Martincau, 51 Mewer, 150 Mott, 93, 125 Martyr, 86 Mews, 134 Mould, 93 Mash, 38 Meyer, 43 Moule, 93 Maskcll, 183 Meynell, 142 Mowbray, 12, 139 Mason, 86 Miall, 88 Moxon, 93 Massie, 59 Mickle, 46, 2t o Moyes, 85 Massinger, 20, 35, 3:85 Middlemas, 40, 89 Muddiman, 5 Masson, 59 Midwinter, 23, 89 Mudie, 208 Master, 192 Mighill, 88 Miihsam, 207 Masterman, 192 Mihell, 88 Muir, 113, 150 Masters, 12, 192 Mildmay, 195 Muirhead, 113 Mather, 17? Miles, 80 Mulholland, 67 Matheson, 86 Millard, 39, 180 Muller, 43 Mattison, 95 Miller, 25 Mullett, 136 Maud, 93 Millett, 80 Mulliner, 178 ftauger, 184 Milne, 25 Mullins, 12, 132 Mauleverer, 139 Milner, 25, 164 Mummery, 12 Maunder, 187 Milsom, 36 Munday, 89 Mawcr, 177 Milson, 36 Munn, 34, 165 Mawson, 24, 93 Milsopp, 195 Murch, 210 May, 65, 86, 90, 195 Milton, 31 Murgatroyd, 48, in Maycock, 65 Milward, 180 Murray, 215 Hayes, 86 Minet, 50 Murreil, 215 Mayhew, 86 Minister, 35, 120 Mushet, 221 Maynard, 73 Minter, 173 Muskett, 221 Mayne, 09 Mitchell, 46, 88 Mttsson, 219 Mayo, 86 Moate, 125 Musters, 131 Mayor, 184 Mobbs, 3 Mutch, io Mayston, 99 Mollison, 37, 93 Mutton, 157, 223 Meacock, 65 Molyncux, 12 Myers, 54, 104 Mead, ,ii3 Homeric, 12 MyhiH, 88 Mcadowcroft, 124 Mompessott, 139 Jfeadows, 104 * /<; Money, 165 Nabbs, 62, 84 Meakia, 86 Money-penny, 301 Nalder, 34 244 INDEX Nangle, 34 Oliver, 79 Parnell, 94 Napier, 6, 186 Olver, 80 Parr, 32 Napper. 173 Onion, 48, 67 Parris, 15 ~ i jt ,* * ' ~* Nash, 34, 105 Onions, 67 Parrott, 32 Nasmythj 44 Naylor, 44? *53 Neal, 79 Orbell, 8 1 Orchardson, 125 Or me, 71 Parry, 32, 38 Parsons, 147 Partner, 163 Neame, 82, 193 Ormerod, in Partotat, 191 Neander, 150 . Orpwood, 212 Pascall, 89 Neate, 88 Osbert, 69 Pascoe, 89 Neave, 194 Osborne, 4, 69 Pash, 89 Neil, 79 Oscroft, 124 Pask, 89 NeM, 35 Osgood, 69 Patch, BQ, 187 Neilson, 26 Osier, 165 Patchctt, 8q Nelrns, 34 Otter, 74 Paternoster, 155 Nelson, 26, 95 Otter burn, 116 Patcrson, 38 Nend, 34 Ottoway, 128 Paton, 38, 63 Nethersole, 116 Otway, 128 Pattison, 38 Nettlefold, 105, 124 Ovens, 134 Paunccfote, 201 Nevill, 138 Over, ti6 Pawling, 87 Nevinson, 194 Overall, 116 Pawson, 87 Nevison, 194 Overbury, 116 Paxman, i8a New all, 39 Overend, 116, 126 Paxon, 182 Newbigging, 21, 133 Overland, 116 Pax ton, 182 Newbolt, 133 Pay, 218 Newbould, 133 Pace, 89 Payn, 4 Newcomb, 22, 106 Pack, 80 Peacock, 21, 135 Newhouse, si Packard, 33 Pcakc, 20, 107 Newman, 22 Packer, 23 Pcall, 132 Newnhani, 122 Packman, 182 Pearce, 10, 29 Nightgall, 12 Padgett, 89, 93 Pears, 10 Nightingale, 218 Nind, 34, 126 Pagot, 93 Painblanc, 156 Pearse, 29 Pearson, 10 Nobbsj 62 Painchaud, 156 Peart, 208 Nock, 34 Painlov6, 156 Pease, 155 Noel, 89 Paintendro, 156 Peck, so, 107 Nokes, 34, 105 Pakemaxx, x8a Poddor, 181 Noon, 90 Palairet, 51 Peel, 132 Norcott, 133 PalHscr, 181 Pgff 93 Norgato, 128 Pallister, 181 Pcggs, 93 Norman, 97 Palmer, 15, 167 Pegraiiij 167 Norris, 20, 07, *S5 Palsgrave, 145 Peilc, 132 Norwood, loo Panncll, 4, 38 Pell, 37 Nott, 1 6, 30, 1 08, 210 Panter, 186 Peilew, 139 Newell, 89 Pan tier, 186 Ponder, 181 Nugent, 138 Paramore, 194 Ponfokl, 124, x$5 Nurm, 74, 162 Pardner, 163 Penn, 135 Nurse, 20, 185 Nutt, 1 08 Pardoe, 203 Parfitt, 59 Pennefamcr, 194 Pennell, 4 t 38 Nutter, 178 Pargetcx*, 175 Pcnnor, 181 Nye, 34, 1x7 Paris, 15 Pcnntoger, 183 Parish, 15, 123 Penny, 202 Oak, 1x8 Park, 32 Penrose, 67 Oakley, 103 Parker, 23, 181 Penruddock, 67 Oakshott, TIQ> 165 Parkins, 32 Ponry, 38 Oates, 63, 79 Parkinson, 6 Pentecost, 89 X * a v Oddy, 63 Parkman, 105 Pepper, so, 6, 155 Odgers> 80 Offer, 15 Parks, 32 Parmcnter f 44, 170 Peppercorn, 207 Popporell, 207 Ogden, 118 Parminter, 171 Pepplatt, 39 OBp&ant, 217 Parmiter, 171 Peppitt, 29 INDEX 245 Pepys, 29 Pitman, 174 Power, 99, 212 Percy, 6, 138 Pitt, 127 Powles, 87 Perkins, 32, 63 Place, 131 Poynder, 181 Perks, 32, 38, 63 Plaice, 131 Poynter, 172 Perowne, 51, 60 Plaistow, 122 Poyntz, 136 n. 2, 142 Perrett, 126 Platt, 104, 113 Poyser, 173 Perrier, 22 Platts, 104 Prall, 141 Perrott, 32, 63 Perry, 32, 142 Playfair, 193 Playsted, 122 Pratt, 212 Prawle, 141 Pescod, 155 Plimsoll, 51 Precious, 94 Peskett, 155 Plowman, 163 Preece, 141 Pester, 148 Plumb, 35 Premier, 213 Petitgas, 191 Plummer, 153 Prentice, 33 Peto, 99 Plumptre, 97 Press, 162 Pett, 127 Pobgee, 135, 220 Prest, 162 Pettifer, 201 Pochin, vii Prestage, 123 Pettigrew, 201 Pockett, 222 Preston, 123 Pettingall, 33, 97 Pocock, 21, 218 Price, 46, 88 Pettinger, 33 Poe, 21, 218 Prickett, 216 Pet tit, 213 Pogson, 93 Pridham, 122 Pettman, 127 Poidevin, 99 Priestman, 64 Petty, 213 Poincare", 200 Prime, 213 Peverell, 207 Poindexter, 200 Pring, 213 Pew, 140 Poingdestre, 200 Pritchard, 66 Phelps, 87 Poitevin, 9 Probyn, 41, 62, 66 Philbrick, 31 Pole, 99, 116 Prothero, 66 Phillimore, 36 Pollard, 223 Proud, 32, 213 Phillips, 46 Pollock, 99 Prout, 32, 213 Philp, 87 Polwarth, 67 Pro vis, 131 Philpot, 62, 87 Pomeroy, n, 142 Prowse, 213 Pnipps, 87 Pomfret, 15 Prust, vii Pick, 20, 107, 219 Pond, 116, 135 Prynne, 213 Pickard, 99 Ponder, 181 Puddifin, 99 Pickbourne, 107 Pontifex, 105 Puddephatt, 201 Pickersgill, 109 Pool, 12, 104, 116 Puddifoot, 48, 201 Pickett, 107 Poorgrass, 119 Pugh, 62 Pickford, 107 Pope, 144 Pull, 116 Pickwick, 107 Popjoy, 135, 220 Pullen, vii Pied-de-Lievre, 227 Popkin, 62 Pullinger, 32 Piedeleu, 227 Popple ton, 118 Pullman, 64 Piedoie, 227 Popplewell, 118 Punch, 136 n. 2 Pierpoint, 138 Porch, 131 Punshon, 136 n, z Piggott, 107 Porcher, 131 Purcell, 222 Pike, 20, 107, 226 Porson, 87 Purdey, 203 Pilchard, 227 Port, 129 Purdue, 203 Pilcher, 171 Portal, 131 PurMss, 32 Pilgrim, 167 Portch, 131 Purnell, 94 Pilfer, 131 Porteous, 136 Purser, 186 Pillman, 132 Portwine, 9 Purvis, 131 Pillsbury, 40 Posnett, 30 Putnam, 31 Pirn, 94 Postill, 86 Puttock, 74, 221 Pinch, 136 n. 2 Postlethwaite, 112 Pyatt, 218 Pinches, 136 n. 2 Pbthecary, 176 Pye, 218 Pinchin, 136 n. 2 Pott, 34, 87 Finder, 181 Pinfold, 124, 135 Pink, 40 Pottinger, 33, 35, 176 Potts, 34, 62, 87 Poulter, 15 Qualfe, 198 Quartermain, 200 Quatrefages, 141 Pinner, 172, 181 Poulton, 4, 116 Quatresous, so Pinnock, 219 Pound, 97, 116, 135 Quelch, 19 Pipkin, 29 Fide, 119, 142 Povey, 221 Powell, 66, S7 Quennell, 93 n. Quick* 210 246 INDEX Quilliam, 66 Richer, 82 Runciman, 64 Quint, 211 Richmond, 121 Rush, 21, 98, 214 Quodlmg, 12 Rick, 62, 74 Russ, 21, 98, 214 Ricketts, 63 Russell, 21, 214 Racine, 204 Ridding, m Rut tor, 158 Rackstraw, 206 Rider, 158 Rycroft, 124 Radcliffe, 108 Ridge, 109 Ryle, 33 Radley, 104 Ridler, 177 Rymer, 187 Rae, 223 Ridley, 104 Ragg, 77 Rigg, 31, 109 Sacherevell, 156 . Raggett, 77 Rigmaideu, 195 Sackville, 139 Raikes, 109 Rimmer, 187 Sacristan, 166 Rainbird, 218 Riou, 51 Sadd, 209 Ralph, 22, 63, 70 Ritchie, 63 Saint, 86 Ram, 135 Rivers, 104, 115 St. Maur, 10 Ramage, 221 Roach, 140, 227 Sale, 4, 131 Ramsbottom, no n. Roadnight, 145 Salisbury, 36 Ramsden, no n. Roades, 127 Sallows, 118 Ranee, 3, 22 Roan, i GO Salmon, 54, 85, 227 Rand, 3, 22 Robb, 62 Salt, 156 Randall, 22 Roberts, 46 Salter, 155 Rands, 3, 22 Robinson, 43,47 Salvage, 211 Rankin, 22, 63 Robison, 38 Samson, 85 Rann, 3, 22 Rochford, 139 Sanctuary, 130 Ransom, 36 Rodd, 74, in Sandeman, 64 Ranson, 36 Roc, 216, 223 Sanders, 62 Raper, 31 Roebuck, 135 Sandys, 29 Raven, 135 Rofif, 22, 70 Sanger, 166 Rawlin, 63 Rogers, 46 Sangster, 166 Rawnsley, 104 Roker, 185 Sansoni, 36 Rawson, 22 Rolfe, 22, 63 Sanson, 36 Ray, 30, 223 Roller, 154 Sargent, 32, 163, 183 Rayment, 72 Rollit, 79 Sarkanclcr, 150 n. Raymond, 72 Rolls, 22, 79 Sarson, 98 Rayncr, 73 Romcr, 167 Sartorius, 105 n. Raynos, 100 Romilly, 51 Satterthwaite, 112 Read, 74, 214 Rood, in Saul, 4 Reader, 153 Rose, 136 Saunders, 62, 82 Record, 123 Rosenberg, 55 Savage, 211 Redd, 214 Rosevear, 67 Savory, 119 Redgrave, no Rossiter, 09 Sawyer, 148 Redhead, 107 Rothschild, 135 Saxon, 98 Redknap, 107 Roundhay, 105 Saxtoa, 167 Redmond, 72 Rouse, 9, 21 Sayce, 216 Reece, 29 Rousseau, 21 Sayer, 73 * Reed, 74. *H Rowbotham, 114 Sayers, 12, 73 Reeder, 153 Rowc, 8, 79, 128 Saylor, 164 Rees, 29 Rowlinsoa, 79 Saynor, 145 Reeve, 164, 181 Rowntree, 118 Scales, 133 Reeves, 147 Rowsell, 214 Scamnicll, 134 Reid, 74, 3X4 Roy, 216 Scat tor good, 304 ReH, 22, 63, 70 Renard, 225 Royce, 94 Royds, in Schlechter, 150 Schnoidewind, o$ Rennie, 66 Royle, 33 Schofiold, ns Remhaw, no Rubinstein y 55 Schuizo, 43 Renter, 158 Reyneli, 80 Rudd, 74, 214 Ruddock, 214 Schiittespeer, 191 Sclater, 29 Reynolds, 73 74> 80 Rudge, 109, 214 Scoggiun, xxx Rhodes, 127 Rugg, 109 Scorer, 152 Rice, 156 Rich, 63 Rumball, 71 Rumbold, 71, 72 .Scotland, 24 Soott, 24, 96 INDEX 247 Scrimgeour, 175 Shoosmith, 44 Smythe, 28 Scriven, 172 Shoppee, 53 Snape, 114 Scrivener, 172 Shore, 116, 129, 151 Snell, 74, 210 Scroggins, in Shortnonse, 198 Snooks, 141 Scroggs, in Shott, 222 Snowdon, 115 Scrubbs, in Shovel, 213 Soar, 215 Scutt, 222 Showier, 178 Sole, 116 Seabright, 73 Shrubb, in Somers, 90 Seal, 131 Sku-fflebotham, 114 Somerviile, 139 Seaman, 71, 75, 164 Seamer, 10, 44, 170 Searle, 74 Shurety, 185 Shurlock, 206 Strate, 128 Sonnenschein, 55 Soper, 153 Sorrel, 215 Seeker, 170 Shuttleworth, 123 Sotheran, 97 Secretan, 167 Sibbs, 75, 76 Souter, 23, 151 Seeley, 209 Sibley, 94 Sowerbutts, 156 Seely, 209 Sickelmore, 119 Sparhawk, 75, 212 Segar, 12 Siddons, 94 Spark, 12, 75, 221 Self, 40 Sidebottom, 114 Sparrowhawk, 221 Selig, 55 Sidney, 34 Speight, 219 Selinger, 34 Siggers, 69 * Speke, 319 Sellar, 155, 175 Siggins, 8s Speller, 187 Sellars, 29 Siggs, 75 Spelman, 187 -Sernark, 34 Silley, 209 Spence, 134, 186 rSemple, 34 Sillifent, 209 Spencer, 33, 186 Senior, 145 Silverlock, 198 Speyer, 55 Sentry, 131 Simeox, 65 Spicer, 2, 152 Sessions, 100 Simister, 149 Spick, 219 Setter, 153 Simmonds, 35, 74 Spiller, 187 Seward, 73, 178 Simnel, 156 Spillman, 187 Sewell, 73 Simons, 2, 29 Spilsbury, 40 Sewer, 150 Simper, 34 Spink, 40 Sexton, 167 Simpson, 26, 35 Spittle, 34 Seymour, 10, 34 Shacklock, 206 Sims, 26 Sinclair, 34 Spittlehouse, 34, 131 Spooner, 172 Shafto, 107 Sisley, 88 Spragg, 212 Shakeshaft, 204 Sisson, 63 Spring, 22, 90, 104 Shakespeare, 191, 304 Sivier, 177 Springett, 193 Shannon, 165 Shapstcr, 44, 170 Sixdenier, 202 Skey, 2it Spry, 212 Spurling, 226 Sharp, 47 Skrimshire, 175 Spnrr, 136 Shaw, 45, no Slack, 113 Squire, 33 Shaylor, 200 Slade, 112 Stables, 134 Shearer, 170 Slagg, 113 Stace, 1 8 Shearman, 170 Slater, 39 Stacey, 18, 33 S&ears, 136 Slatter, 29 Stagg, 135 Shearsniith, 44 Slayer, 153 Stainer, 21 Sheepshanks, 227 Sheldrick, 218 Sleigh, 210 Slight, 210 Staines, 108 Stamford, 1x7 Shepard, 39 Shephard, 39 Shepherd, 178 Slipper, vii Slocombe, 106, 207 Sloman, 64, 113 Stamp, 100 Stanford, 117 Stanger, 175 Sherlock, 296 Sloper, 41 Stangrave, no Sherman, 170 Sherrard, 109 Sherratt, 109 Slow, 113 Slowley, 113 Sly, 210 Stanhope, xoS Stanier, 21 Staniforth, 117 Sherrifi, 162 Smale, 41 Stanton, 108 Sherwin, 305 Shilling, 202 Smallpagc, 93 Smelt, 226 Staple, 123 Stapleton, 123 Shipnian, 164. SMpp, 136 Smith, x8 Smithson, 147 Stark, 2 Ji Starling, 219 Ship way, 128 Smoker, 41 Starr* 136, 219 248 INDEX Stead, 18, 122 Sutor, 23, 105 n. t 151 Thornber, 122 Steer, 212 Suttlc, 1 6, 29 Thome, 129 Stelfox, 225 Swain, 10, 177, 222 Thorold, 72 Stennett, 87 Swann, 135 Thoroughgood, 73 Stenson, 30 Sweet, 74 Thorp, 37, 122 Sterling, 97 Swindell, 106 Thresher, 19 Stewart, 180 Swingler, 170 Thripp, 40, 122 Stigand, 23 Swiimert, 179 Thrower, 187 Stiggins, 12, 23, 77 Stimpson, 87 Swire, 162 Sword, 136 Thrapp, 37, 122 Thunder, 224 Stobart, 178 Swyer, 162 Thunichtgut, 204 Stock, 122 Sykes, 115 Thurkle, 39 Stodart, 178 Symons, 29 Thurtle, 39 Stoer, 226 Syiiyer, 145 Thwaites, 105, ixr Stoke, 122 Thynne, 28 Stone, 108 Taberer, 155 Tibbald, 70 Stopford, 99 Tabernacle, 131 Tibbies, 70, 95 Storm, 224 Tabor, 155 Tibbs, 4, 70 Storr, 212 Tacey, 40 TiekeH, 39 StOtt, 222 faddy, 84 Tickner, 175 Stout, 209 Taggy, 84 Tidball, 14 StOW, 122 Tait, 25, 75, 76 Tidd, 75 , 76, 87 Straff or d, 117 Talbot, 224 Tidmarsli, 113 Straker, 175 Tallboys, 205 Tiffany, 89 Strang, 31 Tallis, 14 x Tiffin, 89 Strange, 12 Tamson, 31 Tig/?, 75 Strangeways, 7 Tangye, 88 Till, 24, 93 Stratford, 117 Tankard, 12 Tillett, 24, 93 Stratton, 128 Tarbottom, 114 Tilley, 24, 93 Straw, 155 Tarbutt, 237 TiUinan, 177 Streatfefld, 29, 112 Tardif 207 Tillotson, 24, 93 Stredwick, 127 Targe tt, 227 Tillson, 93 Street, 97, 120 Tarlcton, 123 Tilly, 93 Stretton, 128 Taskcr, 177 Tiuabs, no Strickland, 37 Tassell, 221 Tindall, 106 Stringer, 169 Tata, 25, 75 Xiixker^ 174 Strode, no Stroud, no Taylor, 43, 153 Tcbb, 4, 5^ Tinkler, 174 Tipler, xo Struthers, no Tebbitt, 4 Tipper, 153, 169 Stuart, 1 80 Tedder, 178 Titchmarsh, 1x3 Stubbs, u, 105 Todman, 16, 34 Tipple, 14 Studdart, 179 Tegg, 223 Titrnus, 219 Sturdee, 209 Teller, 206 Tobin, 34 Sturdy, 209 TeUwright, 44 Tod, 225 Sturgeon, 226 Tempest, 224 Toduunter, 185, 325 Sturgess, 40 Temple, 131 Toft, 1 08 Sturm, 224 Templeman.) 131 Toll, 6a Stutficld, 139 Tcnnant, 146 Toller, 185 Stutter, 179 Tenafsoii, 14 Tollett, 62 Such, u Terrell, 72 Tolley, 34, 6 a Suckliag, 195 Teoriss, Si Tombs, xjco Sugdea, 48 Terry, 81 Tomkias, 35 Sugg, 222 Tdte. 126 Tomlin t 24 Sully, so Toutoi, 86 Tompkins, 24, 35 Suncuner, 90 Tcufdsklnd, 86 Totiguo, 200 Suramerfield, 139 Tex tor, 148 n. Tonkins, 35 Sumner, 3:63 ITiackcr, 173 Tanks, 35 Sumpter, 187 Thackeray, 127 Ton&ou, ^4 Suradg, 97 n Thomas, 46 Toogood, 04 Surtees, x4 Thompson.^ 34* 35 47 TooCf , 75 Sutcliffte, 108 Thoreau, 5 Tooley, 34 INDEX 249 Toomer, 34 Toon, 123 Toosey, '18, 34 Tootell, 106 Tooth, 199 Topliff, 1 08 Torrens, 115 Toulmin, 24, 37 Tout, 4.0 Tower f 21 Towers, 100 Towler, 185 Town, 122 Townroe, 128 Townsend, 126 Townsoa, 24, 125 Tozer, 170 Tranchevent, 205 Tranter, 182 Trcadaway, 35 Treasure, 155 Tredgold, 206 Tremble, 206 Trent, 115 Trethewy, 67 Triggs, 75 Trinder, 154 Trinkwasser, 190 Tripper, 179 Tristram, 79 Trodoux, 204 Trotter, 185, 201 Troutbeck, 115 Trowcr, 187 Trumble, 206 TrumbuB, 206 Tubb, 4 Tubbs, 4 Tuck, 75 Tucker, 170 Tudball, 14 Tudor, 87 Tunder, 224 Tupman, 179 Tapper, 179 TurberviEe, 139 Turbot, 73, 227 A'urabull, 206 Turner, 44, *4 8 Turaey, 47, 100 Turpin, 80 Turrell, 72 Tuttle, 106 Twaddell, 106 Tweddcll, 106 Twells, 34 Twelvetrees, 141 Twentyman, 191 Twiss, 128 Twltcheli, 128 Twltchea, 128 Tyacke, 216 Wads worth, 123 Tyars, 98 n. Wager, 177 Tyas, vii, 7, 9^ Waghora, 204 Tye, 113 Wagstaff, 204 Tyers, 98 n. Wait, 185 Tyler, 45, *53 Waldron, 8r Tyrrell, 72 Walker, 44, 45, 170 Tyson, 32 Wall, 125 Waller, 105 Ulyett, 73 Wallis, 19, 97 Underwood, 104 Wallnutt, 69 Uirwin, 75 Walrond, 81 Up John, 67 Walsh, 19, 97 Usher, 184 Walter, 69 Walthew, 73 Vandenpereboom, 119 Want, 197 Vanner, 31 Ward, 45, 180 Varden, 100 Warden, 180 Vardon, 100 Wardroper, 186 Varney, 142 Ware, 129 VaTighan, 48, 216 Waring, 42, 80 Vavasour, n Warman, 73 Veal, 157, 223 Warner, 81, 185 Veck, 33 Warnett, 80 Veaables, 139 Warnum, 122 Venn, 24 Warr, 129, 197 Vennell, 128 Warren, 80, 124 Venner, 31 Warrener, 185 Venus, 83 Wastall, 156 Verity, 197 Waterman, 3 Verney, 142 Watmouga 195 Vernon, 138 Watson, 3 Vicars, 147 Watt, 3 Vicary, 165 Waugh, 125 Vice, 197 Way, 128 Vick, 33 Wayman, 153 Vickers, 147 Wcale, IE i Vidlcr, 31 Weare, 129 VUliers, 138 Weathcrhead, 179, 227 Vincc, 87 Webb, 148, 163 Vmcott, 87 Webber, 149 Vincey, 87 Webster, 149 Viney, 142 Wedlake, 197 Vingtaln, 191 Wedlock, 197 Vinter, 41, 9Q Weoch, 123 Vipan, 138 Weight, 185 Vipont, 138 Weightman, 153 Virgixx, 135 Virgoe, 195 Weir, 129 Weisspfeanig, 202 Virtue, 197 Welch, 19 Vivian,, 79 Weld, in Vizard, 72 Wellbeloved, 191 Vokes, 24, 61 Wellesley, 30 Vowlo, 24 Wells, 22 Vowler, 2,4 Welsh, 97, 204 Vye, 79 Weranan, 178 Went, 128 Waddflove, 207 Wesley, 30 Waddy, 75 Westaway, 128 Wade, 75, 76, 117 Westray, 97 Wadman, 170 Westrapp, X22 250 Whale, 226 Whalebelly, 226 Whcatstonc, 108 Whisker, 72 WMtbread,.i56 White, tf>, 47, 7^1 Whitelaw, 107 Whiter, 149 Whit field, 112 Whiting, 71 Whitlock, 198 Whits tor, 140 Whittakor, 112 Whitticr, 21 Wich, 116 Wick, 1 1 6, 123 Widdowson, 92 Wigg, 57, 74 Wiggins, 12 Wight, 16, 214 Wilding, 117 Wilkes, 38 Wilkin, 63 Will, 63 Willarti, 73 Willcocks, 65 Wfllctt, 63 William, 63 Williams, 43, 63 Williamson, 63 Willows, 105 Wills, 63 Wfllshcr, 99 Willy, 65 INDEX Wilmot, 59 Wilson,, 22 ? 47, 63 Winbolt, 69 Winch, 120 Windebank, 105 Windle, 39 Windus, 132 * Winfrey, 73 Winkle, vii WinsMp, 204 Winspeatj 204 Winstanloy, 69 Winston, 69 Winter, 41, 90 Winthrop, 122 Wish art, 72 Wolf, 17, 55, 71* 190 Wolmer, 73 Wolscy, 69 Wong, 114 Won trier, 107 Wood, 45, 109 Woodall, 2 ic> WoodarU, 180 Woodgor, 148 Woodhcad, 126 Woodhousc, 133 Woodroffe, 181 Woodruff, i8r Woodyer, 148 #* Woollarci, 198 Woollett, 73 Woolridgc, 73 Woosnam, 30 Woostcr, 19 Worster, 19 Worth, 132 Wragg, 77 Wray, 30, 127 Wright, 1 8, 44 Wrightson, 147 Wyatt, 63 Wyberd, 73 Wyohe, 123 Wyclif, 108 Wyke, 127 Wyllie, 28 Wyman, 64 1 73 Wynd, 128 Wyndnam, 31 VVjTine, 15/216 Wynyard, 124 Wytbc, 117 Yardn, 124 Yntw, 124 Yeats, X24 Yeo, ITS Yftoman, 162 Young, j 7, 47 Youngmatt,, 64 Yule,